APPENDIX: CONCEPT GUIDE
A. Behavioral Theory of Learning – PEACHY
Terms and concepts
Conditioned Stimulus – a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus – something (such as food) that triggers a naturally occurring response
Conditioned Response – the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus.
Unconditioned Response – the naturally occurring response (such as salivation) that follows the unconditioned stimulus
Generalization – the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus
Extinction – the reduction in responding that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery – the increase in responding to the CS following a pause after extinction
Reinforcement – any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behaviour
Positive Reinforcement – strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the response
Negative Reinforcement – strengthens a response by reducing or removing something unpleasant
Punishment – any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behaviour
Positive Punishment – weakens a response by presenting something unpleasant after the response
Negative Punishment – weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule – the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs
Partial Reinforcement Schedule – a schedule in which the responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not
Fixed-interval Schedule – reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a specific amount of time has passed.
Variable-interval Schedule – the reinforcers appear on an interval schedule, but the timing is varied around the average interval, making the actual appearance of the reinforcer unpredictable
Fixed-ratio Schedule – a behaviour is reinforced after a specific number of responses
Variable-ratio Schedule – provides reinforcers after a specific but average number of responses.
Principles (tenets, assertions on how people learn)
Classical Conditioning Theory – when a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that naturally produces a behaviour (the unconditioned response, or UR). As a result of this association, the previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same or similar response (the conditioned response, or CR).
Operant Conditioning – an associative type of learning process which uses reinforcements and punishments to increase or decrease the occurrence of a behavior. Through operant conditioning, a behavior that is rewarded will likely recur while a behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.
Connectionism – trial-and-error learning made via a gradual progression from making mistakes to a repetition of successful trials until unsuccessful ones are abandoned
B. Social Learning Theory – TRICIA
Terms and concepts
Observation and modeling 一 the process of learning by watching others, retaining the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed.
Vicarious learning 一 the ability to learn from observing the actions of others by using our unique human metacognitive ability to create learning opportunities.
Reciprocal Determinism 一 is a model composed of three factors that influence behavior: the individual (including how they think and feel), their environment, and the behavior itself.
Self-efficacy 一 a person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation.
Attention 一 In order to learn, you need to be paying attention.
Retention 一 the ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Reproduction 一 We reproduce previously learned information (behavior, skills, knowledge) when required. However, practice through mental and physical rehearsal often improves our responses.
Motivation 一 in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
Principles (tenets, assertions on how people learn)
Social Learning Theory 一 Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. This theory isn’t limited to behavioral aspects but also takes into consideration the cognitive aspects of learning.
C. Information Processing Theories – CLA
Terms and concepts
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model – describes memory to consist of three unitary (separate) stores: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also assumes that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
Sensory Memory – responsible for holding onto information that the mind receives through the senses such as auditory and visual information.
Short-term Memory – lasts for about 30 seconds. Short term memory retains information that is needed for only a short period of time.
Long-term Memory – has an unlimited amount of space. In the long-term memory, there can be memory stored in there from the beginning of our lifetime.
Stage Theory of Memory – identifies encoding, storage, and retrieval as three fundamental aspects of information processing
Encoding – it is the way the information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory.
Capacity – concerns how much information can be stored.
Duration – refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores.
Cognitive Load Theory – argues that excessive demands on the brain can interfere with memory formation and learning.
Cognitive Load – related to the amount of information that working memory can hold at one time.
Intrinsic Cognitive Load – represents the inherent complexity or difficulty involved in certain tasks or material.
Extraneous Cognitive Load – is the type of load created by the way information is presented to the person.
Germane Cognitive Load – is the result of the constructive method of handling information, in a way that contributes to learning ; it refers to the work that is put into constructing a long-lasting store of knowledge or schema.
Dual Coding Theory – asserts that information is composed of both verbal and visual representations which are distinctly processed in the human mind.
Levels of Processing Model – focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory and predicts the deeper the information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.
Shallow Processing – involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the short-term memory) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information.
Deep Processing – involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis of information and leads to better recall.
Principles (tenets, assertions on how people learn)
In information-processing theory, capacity and speed comprise cognitive resources, which are posited to be strong determinants of memory and other cognitive skills.
Cognitive theories assert that learning invoke changes in people’s mental structures instead of changes in observable behavior; i.e., learning is a mental process.
Cognitive load theory argues that excessive demands on the brain can interfere with memory formation and learning.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model – The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
Stage Theory – In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.
To apply Cognitive Load Theory to Training and Learning, the following can be done: Measure Expertise and Adapt Presentation Accordingly, Reduce the Problem Space, Reduce Split-Attention Effect, Take Advantage of Auditory and Visual Channels in Working Memory.
There is only a certain amount of data that the person can hold onto. Higher the information that is delivered at once, likelier it is that the person will not retain it. As a result, to enhance learning, it is vital to manage cognitive load efficiently.
The goal of the teacher is to minimize intrinsic and extraneous load and maximize germane load.
The objective of the teacher is to help the learner create new connections between ideas and store the information in long term memory.
Dual coding theory asserts that information consists of both verbal and visual representations, which are distinctly processed in the human mind.
Recall/recognition is enhanced by presenting information in both visual and verbal form.
The Dual Coding Theory can be applied in instructional design by giving instructors an in depth look at just how the brain acquires new information. If instructional designers design lessons that involve the two different types of coding, they basically increase the likelihood of learners to retain the information, given that their mind will store it as a representation of both a verbal and non-verbal mental image that can be accessed at a later time.
The levels of processing model focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.
D. Social Constructivism (Vygotsky) – RENE’E
Terms and concepts
Social Interaction – precedes development. Allows individuals to assess and refine what they know, while also building up shared understandings
Culture – includes the language, beliefs, and skills. It defines what the society values and considers important and strongly shapes the nature of the knowledge and understandings created by the learners.
Psychological Tools – mediate our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, such as language, counting systems, symbol systems, art, writings, maps, technology, etc.
Zone of Proximal Development – the gap between what a person can do on his own and what he can do after some assistance. Denotes the zone where the actualization of learning is at its highest potential.
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept and acts as the facilitator that will guide the learner towards a higher cognitive state.
Scaffolding – refers to the guidance provided by a more knowledgeable other that is adjusted to fit the current skill level of the learner.
Principles (tenets, assertions on how people learn)
Social Constructivism – emphasizes collaboration in the production of knowledge and understanding. Exposure to the thoughts of others also provides opportunities to evaluate and refine their own. In the process, the participants develop not only personal knowledge but shared understandings as well.
E. Cognitive Constructivism (Piaget) – ANGELICA
Terms and concepts
· Scaffolding- Students adjust to different responses based on their class performance level.
· Accommodation – Influencing the mental perspectives on an individual to foster the development of new experiences.
· Assimilation – Acquisition of knowledge based on the perspectives/viewpoints of their group.
· Productive Failure – An educational approach that motivates students to solve complex tasks.
· Preparation for Future Learning (PFL) – Ability to use available resources to invent and make new ideas.
Principles (tenets, assertions on how people learn)
· · Cognitive Constructivism- The cognitive constructivism theory, developed by Jean Piaget, argues that individual experiences and philosophies influence how they create knowledge. Piaget’s cognitive constructivism theory maintains that knowledge exists within an individuals’ mind.
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