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PUBLIC POLICY AND PUBLIC HEALTH (G NORQUIST, SECTION EDITOR) Community Interventions to Promote Mental Healthand Social EquityEnrico G. Castillo1,2,3 & Roya Ijadi-Maghsoodi1,4,5 & Sonya Shadravan1 & Elizabeth Moore1 & Michael O. Mensah III1 &Mary Docherty6 & Maria Gabriela Aguilera Nunez1 & Nicolás Barcelo1 & Nichole Goodsmith1 & Laura E. Halpin1 &Isabella Morton1 & Joseph Mango1,7 & Alanna E. Montero1,7 & Sara Rahmanian Koushkaki1,7 & Elizabeth Bromley1,7,8,9,10 &Bowen Chung1,7,9,11,12 & Felica Jones12 & Sonya Gabrielian1,5 & Lillian Gelberg10,13,14 & Jared M. Greenberg1,5 &Ippolytos Kalofonos1,2,15 & Sheryl H. Kataoka1,7,16 & Jeanne Miranda1,7,14 & Harold A. Pincus9,17 & Bonnie T. Zima1,7,16 &Kenneth B. Wells1,7,9,14Published online: 29 March 2019#AbstractPurpose of Review We review recent community interventions to promote mental health and social equity. We define communityinterventions as those that involve multi-sector partnerships, emphasize community members as integral to the intervention, and/or deliver services in community settings. We examine literature in seven topic areas: collaborative care, early psychosis, schoolbased interventions, homelessness, criminal justice, global mental health, and mental health promotion/prevention. We adapt thesocial-ecological model for health promotion and provide a framework for understanding the actions of community interventions.Recent Findings There are recent examples of effective interventions in each topic area. The majority of interventions focus onindividual, family/interpersonal, and program/institutional social-ecological levels, with few intervening on whole communitiesor involving multiple non-healthcare sectors. Findings from many studies reinforce the interplay among mental health, interpersonal relationships, and social determinants of health.Summary There is evidence for the effectiveness of community interventions for improving mental health and some socialoutcomes across social-ecological levels. Studies indicate the importance of ongoing resources and training to maintain long-termoutcomes, explicit attention to ethics and processes to foster equitable partnerships, and policy reform to support sustainablehealthcare-community collaborations.Keywords Mental health (MeSH) . Mental health intervention (MeSH) . Community networks (MeSH) . Social problems(MeSH) . Community interventions (MeSH) . Community-based interventions (MeSH) . Social determinants of health . Mentalhealth equity . Health disparities . Multi-sector interventionsIntroductionFamilies, workplaces, schools, social services, institutions,and communities are potential resources to support health. In1948, the World Health Organization defined health as a “stateof complete physical, mental and social well-being and notmerely the absence of disease or infirmity” [1]. Multi-sectorand community-based mental healthcare approaches can helpaddress health and social inequities by promoting social wellbeing and addressing structural determinants of mental health(public policies and other upstream forces that influence thesocial determinants of mental health).A 2015 Cochrane review described three assumptions thatunderlie community interventions [2•]. The first is an awareness of the multiple forces that exist at all social-ecologicallevels (i.e., individual, interpersonal, organizational/institutional, community, and policy) that facilitate or obstruct mental health [3]. The second is investment in communityThis article is part of the Topical Collection on Public Policy and PublicHealthElectronic supplementary material The online version of this article(https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1017-0) contains supplementarymaterial, which is available to authorized users.* Enrico G. Castilloegcastillo@mednet.ucla.eduExtended author information available on the last page of the articleCurrent Psychiatry Reports (2019) 21: 35https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1017-0The Author(s) 2019participation to provide resources and inform interventions,recognizing expertise outside of the healthcare system. Thethird is prioritization of community mental health and socialoutcomes.This review focuses on recent developments in communityinterventions to promote mental health. We highlight majordevelopments and trends, rather than providing a comprehensive systematic review. Our review defines communityinterventions as those that involve multi-sector partnerships,include community members (e.g., lay health workers) as partof the intervention, and/or involve the delivery of services incommunity settings (e.g., schools, homes). We include interventions focused on traditional mental health outcomes (e.g.,depression remission) and studies that include a wider rangeof outcomes including mental health-related knowledge, quality of life, and social well-being. We do not include substanceuse interventions, which warrant a separate review.To complete our review, we enlisted a large team of expertsand trainees with experience in pertinent intervention areas.Our review focuses on interventions published in peerreviewed medical journals from 2015 to 2018, with additionalstudies identified through reference mining and expert recommendations. We concentrate on seven topic areas, chosen fortheir salience and quality of evidence in recent literature:multi-sector collaborative care, early psychosis interventions,school-based interventions, homeless services, criminal justice, global mental health, and mental health promotion andsecondary prevention. We selected studies for their design,outcomes, and/or impact (Appendix A). These were chosenfrom a larger number of relevant community interventions(Appendix B).Multi-sector Collaborative CareCollaborative care models in mental health have historicalroots in the Chronic Care Model (CCM) of chronic diseasemanagement [4, 5••]. The CCM envisioned a combination ofhealth system reforms and community-based resources to support the ability of healthcare settings to improve outcomes forthose with chronic illnesses [4]. Many collaborative care studies, often for depression, have focused on incorporating mental health services to varying degrees within primary care settings [6–10]. Adaptations exist for other target populations(e.g., children) and settings (e.g., obstetrics/gynecology practices, mental health clinics) [5••, 11–13]. Studies have notedthe importance of community organizations and social services, particularly when inequities play a large role in determining outcomes and require services beyond the healthcaresector, for example for underresourced populations and natural disasters [5••, 14, 15, 16, 17••].Community Partners in Care (CPIC) was a depression collaborative care study that involved 95 programs in fivesectors: outpatient primary care, outpatient mental health, substance use treatment services, homeless services, and othercommunity services (e.g., senior centers, churches) [18•]. A2015 Cochrane review identified CPIC as the only “high-quality study” that “specifically evaluated the added value of acommunity engagement and planning intervention (i.e. acoalition-led intervention) over and above resource enhancement and community outreach” [2•] (page 32). CPIC was agroup-level randomized study that compared two programlevel quality improvement interventions: CommunityEngagement and Planning (CEP) and Resources for Services(RS). RS programs received a depression care toolkit withtechnical assistance and consultation to implement acommunity-wide approach to depression care. CEP programsreceived the same resources within a multi-sector coalitionapproach to co-leading, implementing, and monitoringmulti-sector depression services (e.g., encouraging community programs to be active in psychoeducation and screening,with streamlined referrals to clinics and social services) [19].CPIC’s community-partnered participatory research approachand development of community partnerships are described indetail in several articles [19–24].Unlike many collaborative care studies, CPIC focused on apredominantly under-resourced racial/ethnic minority sample(n = 1018, 46% African American, 41% Latino, 74% withfamily incomes below federal poverty level) and had few exclusion criteria, enrolling many participants with co-morbidsubstance use disorders and serious mental illnesses in thestudy [25, 26]. At 6-month follow-up, participants in CEP(n = 514) compared to RS (n = 504) had significantly improved health-related quality of life, increased physical activity, reduced homelessness risk factors, and reduced behavioralhealth hospitalizations [18•]. Sub-group analyses and followup studies at 12 and 36 months support some significant beneficial effects of CEP over RS, with main effects seen predominantly during the first 6 months post-intervention anddiminishing over time [25, 27–34, 35•].Since CPIC, only a handful of collaborative care studieshave included non-healthcare partners [36–38, 39•].Hankerson et al. conducted depression screenings in threepredominantly African American Christian “mega churches”(≥ 2000 worshippers per weekend) in New York City, using acommunity coalition approach, including faith-based organizations and local government [38]. Investigators screened 122community members at 3 church events in 2012. Notably,19.7% of those screened reported moderate depression(PHQ-9 ≥ 10), in which the authors noted is higher than isseen in African American community samples. Moreover,none of the participants who screened positive requested community mental health referrals, even though these were offered, demonstrating the importance of churches as sites fordepression screening, counseling (i.e., Mental Health FirstAid), and referral [38, 39•].35 Page 2 of 14 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35Early Intervention Services for PsychosisThere is a large and growing body of literature on coordinatedspecialty care programs for people with early psychosis, including the RAISE Early Treatment Program/NAVIGATEand OnTrackNY [40–47, 48•]. Germane to our communityintervention focus, several early psychosis interventions summarized in a 2014 review by Nordentoft et al. adaptedAssertive Community Treatment (ACT), an evidence-basedservice delivery model that emphasizes outreach-based services [48•, 49].Secher et al. published the 10-year follow-up results of theDanish OPUS trial, a two-site RCT of a 2-year ACT-basedassertive early intervention [50]. Services were delivered bya multidisciplinary team (psychiatrist, psychologists, nurses,social workers, vocational therapist, physiotherapist, 10:1patient-to-staff ratio) in patients’ homes, other community locations, or clinic, based on patients’ preferences. Intensiveservices at this early critical stage were hypothesized to yieldlasting effects by teaching individuals the skills to best manage their psychotic illnesses. OPUS results at 2 years showedsignificant positive outcomes compared to services as usual:decreased positive and negative psychotic symptoms, reducedsubstance use, improved treatment adherence, lower antipsychotic medication dosage, higher treatment satisfaction, andreduced family burden. At 10-year follow-up, however, mostof these outcome differences had dissipated. Investigatorsconclude that longer duration of specialized assertive earlyintervention treatment, booster sessions, or the addition of anearly detection program to reduce duration of untreated psychosis would aid the consolidation of early treatment gains.An initiative by a London Early Intervention Service (EIS)sought to decrease duration of untreated psychosis and increase referrals from the community through early psychosispsychoeducational workshops with 36 community organizations (e.g., housing and social services, youth services, cultural and faith groups, police, colleges, employment agencies)[51•]. EIS staff conducted 41 half-day workshops at community organizations; monthly follow-up meetings and an additional session were offered; EIS promotional materials weremade available; and EIS referral processes were streamlinedfor community organizations, including a linkage worker as acommunity liaison. Although the majority of community staffwere in contact with people experiencing early psychosis inthe past year (59.4%) and attitudes toward EIS as a first referral destination improved (37% pre- to 68% post-workshop),the study results were negative. Comparing EIS referrals in theyear pre-/post-interventions, there was no significant difference in duration of untreated psychosis (295 vs. 396 days,p = 0.715) and, contrary to expectations, referred patients experienced significantly more contacts with intermediatehealthcare/non-healthcare programs in their pathway to EIStreatment (2.06 vs. 2.45 steps, p = 0.002), reflecting a lessstreamlined referral process. In follow-up interviews, the authors note the barriers of mental health stigma, high community staff turnover, and resistance by EIS clinic staff tocommunity-based work. Similar to CPIC, both of these studies suggest the importance of resources to sustain lastingchange.School-Based InterventionsResearch shows that youth, especially under-resourced youth,are most likely to receive mental healthcare in schools, givenbarriers to obtaining community mental health services [52••,53]. School infrastructures also allow for large-scale implementation of prevention interventions [54••]. Given the number of factors involved in delivering school interventions,however, experts urge consideration of policies, school cultureand climate, and leadership structure when delivering interventions [55, 56]. Academic outcomes can be difficult forresearchers to collect given the unique requirements ofFamily Educational Rights and Privacy Act and HIPAA[57]. Further, developing sustainable interventions in schoolsthat are truly responsive to the needs of students may requireyears of building academic-community partnerships [58].Skryabina et al. assessed educational outcomes in an RCTof a universal school-based cognitive behavioral therapy prevention program, called FRIENDS [59]. FRIENDS is amanualized program that teaches emotional regulation, anxiety management, and problem solving, led by trained schoolstaff or other designated health leaders. Forty-one schoolswere randomized to three arms (n = 1343): health-ledFRIENDS, school-led FRIENDS, and a comparison groupof Personal, Social, and Health Education (PSHE, emotionalregulation, and self-awareness skills with less focus on anxietymanagement) which was provided by school staff. Health-ledFRIENDS was more effective in decreasing social anxiety,generalized anxiety, and total Revised Children’s Anxietyand Depression Scale scores as compared to school-ledFRIENDS and PSHE. There were no intervention effects onmath, reading, or writing standardized assessment test scores.Several studies implemented preventive interventions inthe pre-kindergarten years. One such study evaluated developmental trajectories of youth, including behavioral, social,and learning measures over a 5-year period after receivingan enriched Head Start Curriculum [60]. This study is notablefor its goal to address disparities and for the measures used toevaluate effects on development, which included social andlearning behaviors and interpersonal relationships. In thisRCT, 25 Head Start Centers were stratified and randomlyassigned to receive usual Head Start vs. REDI intervention.REDI comprised dialogic reading, sound games, an interactive alphabet activity, and implementation of the PreschoolPromoting Alternative Thinking Strategies curriculumCurr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35 Page 3 of 14 35focused on social emotional skills, with added professionaldevelopment for teachers. Outcomes were obtained for 325children who were followed for 5 years post-preschool.Children in the Head Start REDI intervention vs. controlgroup were significantly more likely to follow optimal developmental trajectories in social behavior, aggressiveoppositional behavior, learning engagement, attention problems, student-teacher closeness, and peer rejection. This andother studies illustrate the importance of intervening at thelevels of the classroom and whole school.Homeless ServicesIndividuals experiencing homelessness are at increasedrisk for mental illness, trauma, suicide, and medicalcomorbidities, along with a reduced life expectancycompared with the general population [61–64]. The recent focus on Housing First in community-based research on homelessness largely reflects an increasingembrace of that model [65]. Housing First is an approach to providing permanent housing without requirements for pre-placement sobriety or treatment participation [65]. Studies have demonstrated that HousingFirst yields quicker and more sustained housing retention compared to continuum housing approaches (transitional housing +/- sobriety or treatment requirements)[66••].In the Canadian At Home/Chez Moi study, a multi-cityRCT of the Housing First model compared with usual care,Aubry et al. followed 950 homeless or precariously housedadults with serious mental illness [67••]. The study found thatparticipants in Housing First, compared with usual care, morequickly entered housing (within 73 vs. 220 days), retainedhousing for longer durations (281 vs. 115 days), and ratedthe quality of their housing more positively at 2-year followup. They also had significantly higher gains in communityfunctioning and quality of life in the first year.Several family-focused studies addressed homelessness.Nath examined the impact of drop-in homeless service centersfor children in New Delhi, India [68]. They found that forevery month of attendance at a drop-in center, children experienced 2.1% fewer ill health outcomes per month and used4.6% fewer substances. Shinn et al. focused on social andmental health outcomes in children within newly homelessfamilies with mental health or substance use disorders [69].They compared usual care with a family-adapted critical timeintervention, which combined housing and case managementto connect families leaving shelters with community services.Youth in both groups exhibited reductions in psychosocial andmental health symptoms over time. Children ages 6–10 and11–16 receiving the intervention compared to usual care wereless likely at 24-month follow-up to self-report school troubles(i.e., suspension, being sent to the principal’s office, and beingsent home with a note). Other studies have begun to analogously assess homeless interventions for broader social outcomes, including community functioning, arrests, public andother service use (e.g., food banks, shelters, prison time), employment, and income [70–74]. Future studies would benefitfrom expanded exploration of social outcomes that are important to individuals who have experienced homelessness.Criminal JusticeNearly 40% of jail and prison inmates self-report ahistory of mental illness, and this prevalence is higheramong those with more arrests and time served in acorrectional facility [75]. Community interventions incollaboration with the criminal justice system are wellpositioned to address health disparities experienced byjustice-involved populations and the vulnerabilities tojustice involvement experienced by those with mentalillness in the community. The studies below collaborated with the justice system to alter institutional (e.g.,police, court) processes for those with mental illnessand/or addressed upstream social and structural recidivism risk factors [76].In Monroe County, New York, adults with psychotic disorders charged with misdemeanors were conditionally released and randomized to usual treatment (n = 35) orForensic Assertive Community Treatment (FACT) (n = 35)[77]. FACT employed high-fidelity ACT services with thefollowing adaptations: a 6-h training in criminal justice collaboration for clinicians, screening for criminogenic risk factors among enrollees, weekly court appearances, and meetingsto discuss barriers to success with the supervising judge, public defender, and district attorney. Over a year, FACT enrolleeshad significantly fewer convictions (0.4 ± 0.7 vs 0.9 ± 1.3,p = .023), days in jail (21.5 ± 25.9 vs 43.5 ± 59.2, p = .025),and more days in outpatient mental health treatment (305.5 ±92.1 versus 169.4 ± 139.6, p 14,000) in Colorado,Illinois, Kansas, Maine, Oregon, Utah, and WashingtonState [97–99]. CTC has also been implemented inPennsylvania and rural Massachusetts [100–102]. In CTC versus control communities, results showed improved individualoutcomes at eighth grade: reduced substance use, delinquency,and violence; later initiation of alcohol use, tobacco use, anddelinquency; and lower prevalence of risky behaviors (pastyear delinquency, past 2-week delinquency, and past-monthalcohol and tobacco use) [103•]. Many of these resultspersisted to grades 10–12, despite few CTC programs focusedon these grade levels. Fewer results (greater lifetime abstinence from antisocial behavior; greater lifetime abstinencefrom drug use and violence in male but not female participants) persisted to age 19 [103•, 104].CTC investigators recently published follow-up results forparticipants at age 21 (n = 4002, 91% of the initial sample fromgrades 5–6), 11 years after initial CTC implementation [103•].By age 21, CTC vs. control communities showed increasedlikelihood of lifetime abstinence from alcohol, tobacco, andmarijuana use (ARR 1.49; 95% CI 1.03, 2.16), increased abstinence from antisocial behavior (ARR 1.18, 95% CI 1.02, 1.37),and decreased lifetime incidence of violence (ARR 0.89, 95%CI 0.79, 0.99). In male participants, CTC versus control communities also showed increased likelihood of sustained abstinence from tobacco, marijuana, and inhalant use.Social protection studies investigate mental health and other outcomes associated with direct provision of resources inthe forms of cash and food transfers [105, 106•, 107•, 108,109]. A neighborhood cluster RCT in Ecuador investigatedthe effects of such resources on mental well-being and intimate partner violence [106•, 109]. Colombian refugees andlow-income households in northern Ecuador were randomized to cash, food vouchers, food, or control arms.Treatment arms received the equivalent of $40 per monthper household for 6 months, which represents 11% of pretransfer monthly consumption. Food vouchers were redeemable at local supermarkets for a pre-approved list of nutritiousfoods. Food transfers were in the form of rice, lentils, vegetable oil, and canned sardines. Pooled results from all treatmentarms showed the intervention significantly decreased theprobability of controlling behaviors and physical and/or sexual violence by 6 to 7 percentage points compared to controls,with even greater reductions in the prevalence of any physical/sexual violence for women with low baseline ratings of household decision-making power [106•]. Qualitative interviewswith participants indicated that improved family well-being,reduced marital stress and conflict, and women’s increasedfreedom of movement and decision-making power contributed to the decrease in violence. Similar studies include a largecluster RCT of cash transfers in Kenya’s program for at-riskyouth and a cluster RCT of greening urban vacant land; bothshowed significant improvements in depression outcomescompared to control communities. These studies highlightthe importance of addressing social inequities to achieve mental health gains in under-resourced communities [107•, 110•].DiscussionActions of Community Interventionsby Social-Ecological LevelThe community interventions above (Appendix A), drawnfrom a larger selection (Appendix B), highlight the successesand promise of these interventions to promote mental healthand broader outcomes at all social-ecological levels: individual, interpersonal/family, organizational/institutional, community, and policy [3]. Community involvement is represented invaried ways in the form of individuals (lay health workers),settings (churches, schools), leaders (community-based participatory research), and multi-sector coalitions [35•, 37, 38, 39•,85•, 86–90, 91•, 103•]. Many studies examined the interplayamong mental health services, social and structural determinants, and mental health outcomes. Some explicitly assessedsocial outcomes like intimate partner violence, housing retention, academic performance, parent-child interactions, “societal healing,” and other contributors to mental and social wellbeing [67••, 92••, 94, 111].Figure 1 summarizes the actions of community interventions by social-ecological level to promote mental health andsocial well-being. We found that most interventions reviewedpromoted mental health at the individual level. LHW interventions extend access and increase acceptability of mental healthservices by leveraging trusted relationships. For example,Patel et al. demonstrated the successful delivery of behavioralactivation for depression by LHWs through relatively brieftraining to a population with significant barriers to healthcareaccess [91•]. Some studies adapted evidence-based models35 Page 6 of 14 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35(e.g., Forensic Assertive Community Treatment) to delivertreatments in non-traditional locations, such as jails, churches,and senior centers [77]. Many individual-level interventionsalso simultaneously acted at the organizational/institutionallevel. In the successful RCT of Head Start REDI, teacherswere provided with professional development and mentoringto deliver an enriched curriculum [60].A second group of interventions intervened at the interpersonal level (e.g., parent and family interventions).The effective child abuse prevention program in SouthAfrica focused on the parent-child dyad throughindividual and joint sessions [92••]. Additionally, astrength of this intervention was its delivery by local childcare workers. A third group of interventions functioned atthe organizational/institutional level by enhancing the processes by which non-healthcare programs serve those withmental illness. These interventions enlisted non-healthcareentities and trusted community leaders to be active inmental healthcare, such as providing a depression screening intervention in churches [38, 39•]. Several successfulschool-based interventions operated at the organizationallevel, such as Warschburger and Zitzmann’s universalIndividual Organizational /InstitutionalInterpersonal / Community PolicyFamily Increaseaccess to mentalhealth servicesand evidencebased treatments(outreach)Increaseacceptability ofmental healthservices (e.g.,peers,communityhealth workers) Psychoeducationfor families toincrease mentalhealth literacy, reducestigma, and increasemental health helpseekingPsychoeducationand skills training withfamilies to reducerisky behaviors (e.g.,child abuse, intimatepartner violence) withmental healthconsequencesCase managementand system navigationfor at-risk familiesEmbed mentalhealth services withincommunity locations(e.g., jails, workplaces)Enlist trustedcommunity locationsand leaders to promotemental healthChange programlevel processes toincrease mental healthreferrals, screenings,treatmentChange institutionalprocesses and policiesto better serve thosewith mental illness(e.g., pre-arrest mentalhealth diversionprograms, mentalhealth courts)Change institutionalpolicies to facilitateaccess to mentalhealth services (e.g.,school policies) andprioritize emotional andsocial well-beingActivate multisector coalitions in theplanning andimplementation ofmental healthservices and researchActivate communityleaders to reducepublic stigma andpromote sharedaccountability formental healthEnhanceknowledge, attitudes,and collective efficacyin mental health Create financialincentives toencourage formationof multi-sectorpartnershipsDevelop qualitymetrics thatincorporate socialdeterminants ofhealthProvide financialand technical supportfor community-basedorganizations topartner with thehealthcare sector Fig. 1 Overview of community intervention processes by social-ecological level (adapted from McElroy, KR, Bibeau D, Steckler A, Glanz K. Anecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Educ Q. 1988;15:351–377)Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35 Page 7 of 14 35school-based prevention program for eating disorders inGermany and other whole school approaches [111, 112].We found only a small number of studies that intervened atthe level of whole communities. Most interventions reviewedhere included one non-healthcare sector collaborator as opposed to collaborating with communities more broadly.Examples of community-level interventions include CPIC,which involved 95 organizations in 5 sectors to developcommunity-wide plans for managing depression, and CTCthat supports communities to develop multi-sector coalitionsto prevent youth substance use, violence, and delinquency[35•, 103•]. Other studies acted at the community level bydirectly providing or influencing resources on a large scale,through cash/food transfers or land revitalization efforts [94,105, 106•, 107•, 108,109, 110•].A fifth group of interventions are health and public policies. Policies that promote mental health equity are beyond thescope of this review but are detailed in our recent review onthis topic [113•]. Policies as varied as mental health insuranceparity, assisted outpatient treatment statutes, quality metricsfor social determinants of health, value-based payment reforms, and the integration of funds and services for healthand social care have the potential to improve access to treatment and improve outcomes [114–117, 118•, 119–121].Policies facilitating multi-sector health collaborations includethe Accountable Health Communities model, California’sWhole Person Care pilots, the Certified CommunityBehavioral Health Clinics Demonstration Program, NewYork’s Home and Community-based Services, the UK’sSocial Impact Bonds Trailblazers, and the National HealthService England’s social prescribing teams [122–127].Nation-level efforts to promote shared values for mental andsocial well-being are Australia’s mental health anti-stigmacampaign, the US National Prevention Strategy’s focus onemotional well-being, and the UK’s Campaign to EndLoneliness [128–130]. Thrive NYC is an example of largescale action to promote mental health at the civic level, with abudget of $850 million and 54 initiatives across all publicagencies and departments, with special emphases on community partnerships and prevention [131, 132•].Ethical ConsiderationsEthical considerations are of importance to many communityinterventions given the focus on marginalized and underresourced populations [24, 133]. Research on interventionsfor at-risk individuals with stigmatized conditions (e.g., incarceration, homelessness) should build trust with participantsand recognize structural forces that place them at higher riskfor these conditions (e.g., discriminatory policing and housingpolicies), to avoid inadvertently worsening stigma. Involvingcommunity stakeholders in equitable arrangements forinterventions and research requires the necessary time andprocesses to develop effective partnerships. The expertise ofcommunity leaders and other stakeholders can be integratedequitably with that of researchers with trust, respect, and twoway knowledge exchange [134, 135]. Community-based organizations, social services, and healthcare agencies also havedifferent funding streams and incentives. Efforts to sustaininterventions should include a focus on funding and otherenabling infrastructures (e.g., training, technology) for community groups to participate in intervention-related activities.ConclusionsThere is evidence for the effectiveness of community interventions in multiple topic areas and acting at all social-ecologicallevels. International lay health worker interventions, a parenting intervention to reduce child abuse, a whole-school cognitive behavioral therapy prevention program, adapted ACTteams for early psychosis and justice-involved populations,Housing First services, and multi-sector collaborative careand prevention services are examples of effective communityinterventions. Studies indicate the importance of ongoing resources and training to maintain long-term outcomes and theneed for policy reform to support healthcare-community partnerships. Future research should further define best practicesfor multi-sector collaborations and partnership structures, identify strategies for sustainable change after the end of researchactivities, and clarify the types of health and social problemsthat are best ameliorated through community interventions [2•].In close and equitable partnerships with communities and policy leaders, future community interventions in mental healthshould seek to improve health and achieve large-scale socialoutcomes through initiatives that address mental health, structural, and social inequities.Compliance with Ethical StandardsGrant Support Grant Support By the National Institute on MinorityHealth and Health Disparities (award R01MD00721), the Patient-centeredOutcomes Research Institute (award 1501-26518), and the NationalInstitute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health (awardK12DA000357). The content and views expressed in this article are thoseof the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the USDepartment of Veterans Affairs the National Institutes of Health or theUnited States Government.Conflict of Interest Enrico G. Castillo is employed by UCLA and LosAngeles Department of Mental Health and reports grants pending fromUCLA CTSI and School of Medicine Seed Grant Program. Dr. Castillohas received travel reimbursement from the American PsychiatricAssociation.Roya Ijadi-Maghsoodi is employed by the VA Greater Los AngelesHealthcare System and receives funding from the National Institute onDrug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health under Award NumberK12DA000357.35 Page 8 of 14 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35Nicolás Barcelo reports a Minority Fellowship Award from the APA/SAMHSA.Joseph Mango reports a grant from the National Institute of MinorityHealth and Health Disparities (NIMHD).Alanna E. Montero reports grants pending from the NIMHD.Sara Rahmanian Koushkaki reports a grant from the NIMHD.Bowen Chung is a consultant for the Center for Law and Social Policyand on the advisory board for a Medicaid mental health project. Dr.Chung is a full-time employee of County of Los Angeles Departmentof Mental Health. Dr. Chung reports a grant pending from NIHMHR01 and a grant from PCORI (Award No. 1501-26518) and has receivedpayment for technical assistance training from Baton Rouge AreaFoundation and Maimonides Medical Center (contract to RANDCorporation for CIPIC implementation). Dr. Chung has received travelreimbursement from the City of New York Mayor’s Office and PCORI.Jeanne Miranda reports honoraria from Annapolis Coalition andBaymark Health Services and is employed by UCLA Psychiatry. Dr.Miranda reports grants from NIH/NIMH, SAMHSA, NIMH, NIMHD,and PCORI.Bonnie T. Zima is employed by UCLA and reports grants from IllinoisChildren’s Healthcare Foundation, PCORI, SAMHSA, CaliforniaDHCS, and MHSOAC.Kenneth B. Wells reports a grant from the National Institute ofMinority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD) and potential dissemination grants related to effective community interventions.Sonya Shadravan, Michael O. Mensah, III, Mary Docherty, MariaGabriela Aguilera Nunez, Nichole Goodsmith, Isabella Morton,Elizabeth Bromley, Felica Jones, Sonya Gabrielian, Lillian Gelberg,Jared M. Greenberg, Ippolytos Kalofonos, Sheryl H. Kataoka, andHarold A. Pincus each declare no potential conflicts of interest.Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent This article does notcontain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any ofthe authors.Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons Attribution 4.0 International Li cense (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to theCreative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.ReferencesPapers of particular interest, published recently, have beenhighlighted as:• Of importance•• Of major importance1. World Health Organization. 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Building community resilience through mental healthinfrastructure and training in post-Katrina new Orleans. Ethnicitydisease. 2011;21:S1.15. Springgate BF, Arevian AC, Wennerstrom A, Johnson AJ,Eisenman DP, Sugarman OK, et al. Community resilience learning collaborative and research network (C-LEARN): study protocol with participatory planning for a randomized, comparativeeffectiveness trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15:1683.16. Wells KB, Tang J, Lizaola E, Jones F, Brown A, Stayton A, et al.Applying community engagement to disaster planning: developing the vision and design for the Los Angeles County communitydisaster resilience initiative. Am J Public Health. 2013;103:1172–80.17.•• Druss BG, Goldman HH. Integrating Health and Mental HealthServices: A Past and Future History. Am J Psychiatry. 2018appiajp201818020169. Excellent review on the history of collaborative care, incorporating recent legislative developmentsaround the Affordable Care Act.18.• Wells KB, Jones L, Chung B, Dixon EL, Tang L, Gilmore J, et al.Community-partnered cluster-randomized comparative effectiveness trial of community engagement and planning or resources forservices to address depression disparities. J Gen Intern Med.2013;28:1268–78 This is the primary 6-months outcomesCurr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35 Page 9 of 14 35paper for the Community Partners in Care study, a largemulti-sector collaborative care model for depression.19. Khodyakov D, Sharif MZ, Dixon EL, Mendel P, Chung B,Linkski B, et al. An implementation evaluation of the communityengagement and planning intervention in the CPIC depressioncare improvement trial. Community Ment Health J. 2014;50:312–24.20. Chung B, Jones L, Dixon EL, Miranda J, Wells KB. CommunityPartners in Care Steering Council. Using a community partneredparticipatory research approach to implement a randomized controlled trial: planning community partners in care. J Health CarePoor Underserved. 2010;21:780–95.21. Chung B, Ngo VK, Ong MK, Pulido E, Jones F, Gilmore J, et al.Participation in training for depression care quality improvement:a randomized trial of community engagement or technical support.Psychiatr Serv. 2015;66:831–9.22. Landry CM, Jackson AP, Tang L, Miranda J, Chung B, Jones F,et al. The effects of collaborative care training on case managers’perceived depression-related services delivery. Psychiatr Serv.2017;68:123–30.23. Stockdale SE, Tang L, Pudilo E, Lucas-Wright A, Chung B et al.Sampling and Recruiting Community-Based Programs UsingCommunity-Partnered Participation Research. 2016;17:254–264.24. Wells K, Jones L. “Research” in community-partnered, participatory research. JAMA. 2009;302:320–1.25. Castillo EG, Shaner R, Tang L, Chung B, Jones F, Whittington Y,et al. Improving depression Care for Adults with Serious MentalIllness in Underresourced areas: community coalitions versustechnical support. Psychiatr Serv. 2018;69:195–203.26. Miranda J, Ong MK, Jones L, Chung B, Dixon EL, Tang L, et al.Community-partnered evaluation of depression services for clientsof community-based agencies in under-resourced communities inLos Angeles. J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28:1279–87.27. Lam CA, Sherbourne C, Tang L, Belin TR, Williams P, YoungBrinn A, et al. The impact of community engagement on health,social, and utilization outcomes in depressed, impoverished populations: secondary findings from a randomized trial. J Am BoardFam Med. 2016;29:325–38.28. Choi KR, Sherbourne C, Tang L, Castillo E, Dixon E et al. AComparative Effectiveness Trial of Depression CollaborativeCare: Subanalysis of Comorbid Anxiety. West J Nurs Res.2018;2018193945918800333.29. Izquierdo A, Ong M, Pulido E, Wells KB, Berkman M, Linski B,et al. Community Partners in Care: 6- and 12-month outcomes ofcommunity engagement versus technical assistance to implementdepression collaborative care among depressed older adults. EthnDis. 2018;28:339–48.30. Springgate B, Tang L, Ong M, Aoki W, Chung B, Dixon E, et al.Comparative effectiveness of coalitions versus technical assistance for depression quality improvement in persons with multiplechronic conditions. Ethn Dis. 2018;28:325–38.31. Sherbourne CD, Aoki W, Belin TR, Bromley E, Chung B, DixonE, et al. Comparative effectiveness of two models of depressionservices quality improvement in health and community sectors.Psychiatr Serv. 2017;68:1315–20.32. Mehta P, Brown A, Chung B, Jones F, Tang L, Gilmore J, et al.Community Partners in Care: 6-month outcomes of two qualityimprovement depression care interventions in male participants.Ethn Dis. 2017;27:223–32.33. Ngo VK, Sherbourne C, Chung B, Tang L, Wright AL,Whittington Y, et al. Community engagement compared withtechnical assistance to disseminate depression care among lowincome, minority women: a randomized controlled effectivenessstudy. Am J Public Health. 2016;106:1833–41.34. Chung B, Ong M, Ettner SL, Jones F, Gilmore J, McCreary M,et al. 12-month outcomes of community engagement versustechnical assistance to implement depression collaborative care:a partnered, cluster, randomized, comparative-effectiveness trial.Ann Intern Med. 2014;161:S23–34.35.• Ong MK, Jones L, Aoki W, Belin TR, Bromley E, Chung B, et al.A community-partnered, participatory, cluster-randomized studyof depression care quality improvement: three-year outcomes.Psychiatr Serv. 2017;68:1262–70 This study documents resultsof the Community Partners in Care study, a multi-sector collaborative care model for depression, at three-year follow-up.36. Henderson JL, Cheung A, Cleverley K, Chaim G, Moretti ME, deOliveira C, et al. Integrated collaborative care teams to enhanceservice delivery to youth with mental health and substance usechallenges: protocol for a pragmatic randomised controlled trial.BMJ Open. 2017;7:e014080.37. Grote NK, Katon WJ, Russo JE, Lohr MJ, Curran M, Galvin E,et al. Collaborative care for perinatal depression in socioeconomically disadvantaged women: a randomized trial. Depression andAnxiety. 2015;32:821–34.38. Hankerson SH, Lee YA, Brawley DK, Braswell K,Wickramaratne PJ, Weissman MM. Screening for depression inAfrican-American churches. Am J Prev Med. 2015;49:526–33.39.• Hankerson SH, Wells K, Sullivan MA, Johnson J, Smith L,Crayton L’S, et al. Partnering with African American churchesto create a Community Coalition for Mental Health. Ethn Dis.2018;28:467–74 This documents the development of acommunity-partnered collaborative depression care studywith African American churches.40. 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Implementation and fidelity assessment of theNAVIGATE treatment program for first episode psychosis in amulti-site study. Schizophr Res. 2018.45. Nossel I, Wall MM, Scodes J, Marino LA, Zilkha S, Bello I, et al.Results of a coordinated specialty care program for early psychosis and predictors of outcomes. Psychiatr Serv. 2018;69:863–70.46. Hann MC, Caporaso E, Loeffler G, Cuellar A, Herrington L et al.Early interventions in a US military first episode psychosis program. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2018.47. Correll CU, Galling B, Pawar A, Krivko A, Bonetto C, RuggeriM, et al. Comparison of early intervention services vs treatment asusual for early-phase psychosis: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75:555–65.48.• Nordentoft M, Rasmussen JO, Melau M, Hjorthøj CR, ThorupAA. How successful are first episode programs? A review of theevidence for specialized assertive early intervention. Curr OpinPsychiatry. 2014;27:167–72 This review describes the international landscape of specialized assertive early interventionmodels, which differ from other clinic-based models.35 Page 10 of 14 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 3549. Bond GR, Drake RE, Mueser KT, Latimer E. Assertive community treatment for people with severe mental illness. DiseaseManagement and Health Outcomes. 2001;9:141–59.50. Secher RG, Hjorthøj CR, Austin SF, Thorup A, Jeppesen P, et al.Ten-year follow-up of the OPUS specialized early interventiontrial for patients with a first episode of psychosis. SchizophrBull. 2014;41:617–26.51.• Lloyd-Evans B, Sweeney A, Hinton M, Morant N, Pilling S,Leibowitz J, et al. Evaluation of a community awareness programme to reduce delays in referrals to early intervention servicesand enhance early detection of psychosis. BMC psychiatry.2015;15:98 Despite negative findings, this study is a good example of a community intervention intervening at the level ofprograms and institutions, to alter their interactions withthose with mental illness.52.•• Costello EJ, He JP, Sampson NA, Kessler RC, Merikangas KR.Services for adolescents with psychiatric disorders: 12-month datafrom the National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent. PsychiatrServ. 2014;65:359–66 This study examined rates of serviceuse among adolescents over 12 months using the NationalComorbidity Survey Adolescent Supplement. Authors foundthat the majority of youth in need of mental health treatmentdid not receive it. Youth were most likely to receive mentalhealth services in schools, followed by specialty mental healthservices.53. Pumariega AJ, Rogers K, Rothe E. 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Suicidalideation and suicide attempts in a sample of homeless people withmental illness. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2003;191:365–71.62. Fazel S, Khosla V, Doll H, Geddes J. The prevalence of mentaldisorders among the homeless in western countries: systematicreview and meta-regression analysis. PLoS Med. 2008;5:e225.63. Nusselder WJ, Slockers MT, Krol L, Slockers CT, Looman CW,van Beeck EF. Mortality and life expectancy in homeless men andwomen in Rotterdam: 2001-2010. PLoS One. 2013;8:e73979.64. Baggett TP, Hwang SW, O’Connell JJ, Porneala BC, StringfellowEJ, Orav EJ, et al. Mortality among homeless adults in Boston:shifts in causes of death over a 15-year period. JAMA Intern Med.2013;173:189–95.65. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.Permanent supportive housing: evaluating the evidence for improving health outcomes among people experiencing chronichomelessness. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press;2018.66.•• Tsemberis S, Gulcur L, Nakae M. Housing first, consumer choice,and harm reduction for homeless individuals with a dual diagnosis. Am J Public Health. 2004;94:651–6 This study described theHousing First model and demonstrated the effectiveness of theHousing First model. Participants who received the HousingFirst program spent more time stably housed compared tocontingent housing.67.•• Aubry T, Goering P, Veldhuizen S, Adair CE, Bourque J, et al. Amultiple-city RCT of housing first with assertive community treatment for homeless Canadians with serious mental illness.Psychiatr Serv. 2015;67:275–81 This describes the multi-siterandomized controlled trial of Housing First with assertivecommunity treatment across five Canadian cities. Authorsfound that participants who received Housing First enteredhousing quicker and spent more days stably housed comparedto participants who received the control condition.68. Nath R. The Impact of Drop-In Centres on the Health of StreetChildren in New Delhi, India [dissertation]. 2016.69. 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JAMA.2007;297:407–10.Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35 Page 13 of 14 35AffiliationsEnrico G. Castillo1,2,3 & Roya Ijadi-Maghsoodi1,4,5 & Sonya Shadravan 1 & Elizabeth Moore 1 & Michael O. Mensah III 1 &Mary Docherty 6 & Maria Gabriela Aguilera Nunez1 & Nicolás Barcelo1 & Nichole Goodsmith 1 & Laura E. Halpin1 &Isabella Morton 1 & Joseph Mango 1,7 & Alanna E. Montero 1,7 & Sara Rahmanian Koushkaki1,7 & Elizabeth Bromley 1,7,8,9,10 &Bowen Chung1,7,9,11,12 & Felica Jones 12 & Sonya Gabrielian1,5 & Lillian Gelberg 10,13,14 & Jared M. Greenberg 1,5 &Ippolytos Kalofonos1,2,15 & Sheryl H. Kataoka 1,7,16 & Jeanne Miranda 1,7,14 & Harold A. Pincus9,17 & Bonnie T. Zima1,7,16 &Kenneth B. Wells 1,7,9,141 Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and HumanBehavior at UCLA, Department of Psychiatry and BiobehavioralSciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, LosAngeles, CA, USA2 Center for Social Medicine and Humanities, UCLA, LosAngeles, CA, USA3 Los Angeles County Department of Mental Health, LosAngeles, CA, USA4 Division of Population Behavioral Health, Department of Psychiatryand Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine,UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA5 VA Health Service Research and Development Center for the Studyof Healthcare Innovation, Implementation, and Policy, VA GreaterLos Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA6 Harkness Fellow in Healthcare Policy and Practice, New York StatePsychiatric Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA7 Center for Health Services and Society, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA,USA8 UCLA Department of Anthropology, Los Angeles, CA, USA9 Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, USA10 VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA,USA11 Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA12 Healthy African American Families II, Los Angeles, CA, USA13 Department of Family Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine,UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA14 UCLA Jonathan Fielding School of Public Health, LosAngeles, CA, USA15 UCLA International Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA16 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, UCLA, LosAngeles, CA, USA17 Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center,New York State Psychiatric Institute, NewYork-PresbyterianHospital, Irving Institute for Clinical and Translational Research,New York, NY, USA35 Page 14 of 14 Curr Psychiatry Rep (2019) 21: 35