SOLUTION: Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment

The Impacts ofConstruction andthe BuiltEnvironmentIntroductionEnergy Use, Global Warming, Climate ChangeResource Depletion, Waste and RecyclingPollution and Hazardous Substances in the BuiltEnvironmentPlanning, Land-use and ConservationConclusionReferencesVersion 1: December 2010 07TBN33 The Impacts of Construction and the Built EnvironmentPage 2 of 6Document Reference: FM-RE-07Revision Status: BEffective Date: 21/09/2010UNCONTROLLED COPY IF PRINTED IntroductionAround half of all non-renewable resources mankind consumes are used inconstruction, making it one of the least sustainable industries in the world.However, mankind has spent the majority of its existence trying to manipulatethe natural environment to better suit its needs so today our daily lives arecarried out in and on constructions of one sort or another: we live in houses, wetravel on roads, we work and socialise in buildings of all kinds. Contemporaryhuman civilisation depends on buildings and what they contain for its continuedexistence, and yet our planet cannot support the current level of resourceconsumption associated with them.Estimate of global resources used in buildings [1] Resource(%)Energy45–50Water50Materials for buildings and roads (by bulk)60Agricultural land loss to buildings80Timber products for construction60 (90% of hardwoods)Coral reef destruction50 (indirect)Rainforest destruction25 (indirect) Estimate of global pollution that can be attributed to buildings [2] Pollution(%)Air quality (cities)23Climate change gases50Drinking water pollution40Landfill waste50Ozone depletion50 Buildings are long-lived, and cities have even longer lives: their impacts willstretch into the lives of many generations of our ancestors; into a future ofunknown resources, pollution and unstable climatic conditions. Clearly, for thegood of the environment and the survival of the planet, its myriad ofinterwoven and interdependent ecosystems and mankind, something has tochange, and construction companies have a leading role to play in thatchange.But that is only part of the story. The buildings we construct create wealth.Half of all fixed capital formation annually is vested in buildings, which,taken together with the inherited assets of buildings, represents about 75per cent of all UK wealth [3]. The long-term asset value of a buildingdepends on its ability to satisfy user needs, cope with the changingenvironmental conditions and survive the evolving expectations of designquality.Naturally lit and well ventilated buildings, that utilise alternative energysources and those that are designed to offer attractive whole lifeperformance to consumers are more likely to be sound wealth investmentsthan those which are over-dependent on fossil fuels or which ignore thefundamental human need for a healthy and engaging environment. Thetypical ratio of economic costs of commercial building over a 50-year periodis: Cost of design andconstruction:Operating costs:Staff costs1210 It is therefore prudent to address environmental issues at the outset;otherwise our created wealth of the constructed asset will be significantlyundermined.The main impacts of the construction and use of our built environment canbe grouped as follows:-Energy Use, Global Warmingand Climate ChangeIn the last hundred years the Earth has warmed by about 0.5OC [4]. Thereis strong evidence that this is due to an increase in the concentrations ofcertain trace greenhouse gases. Principal amongst these is carbon dioxidewhich is produced whenever fossil fuels are burnt to obtain energy. Globally, 07TBN33 The Impacts of Construction and the Built EnvironmentPage 3 of 6Document Reference: FM-RE-07Revision Status: BEffective Date: 21/09/2010UNCONTROLLED COPY IF PRINTED energy use, and the associated carbon dioxide emissions, has been rising rapidlyover the past few decades. The main consumers are the developed countries whoenjoy standards of living to which the developing countries aspire. Theconsequences of the continuing growth of energy use which this implies arepotentially catastrophic. The developed countries must improve their energyefficiency as a part of ensuring that the problem is brought under control.Construction industry related energy use accounts for approximately half ofnational energy use in the UK. The use of fossil-fuel-derived energy in theproduction of materials, during the construction process, and by the occupants orusers of the building or structure throughout its lifetime is a source of significantquantities of carbon dioxide. Though not the most potent of the so-calledgreenhouse gases, it is the one produced in the greatest quantities. Theseclimatic changes themselves may necessitate changes in construction practice.Resource depletion, waste andrecyclingThe construction industry is a conspicuous user of resources. Materials arederived from numerous sources and suppliers, and minimisation of wastepresents particular problem. Although many of the materials in use are commonto most sites, the fragmented nature of development constrains the practicalextent of recycling. Furthermore, despite the long life of its products, theireventual demolition or redevelopment can produce significant waste for landdisposal unless re-used.The mass of resources used in the UK construction industry is dominated bystone and primary aggregates: sand and gravel extraction of these primaryresources implies major environmental impact from loss of habitat andecosystem, damage to the landscape, potential subsidence problems and releaseof methane. Noise and dust and heavy transport through populated areas conferlocal nuisance and contribute to restricted award of extraction licences by localauthorities. The same issues arise in the disposal or processing/recycling ofwaste.Construction also has a major impact on the environment in its consumption ofenergy, both directly and embodied in the materials that it uses. The large bulkof materials used consumes a great deal of energy for transport. Taking intoaccount both direct use and embodied energy, the construction industryconsumes about 4.5% of the national total as a consequence of this energyconsumption, construction generates over 40 million tonnes of carbon dioxidewhich contributes to global warming from the greenhouse effect [4]. Acidgases and oxides of nitrogen (NO2) are also produced, contributing to acidrain and photochemical smog production.The links between water and energy are gradually becoming more evident.Generating energy uses a lot of water for cooling and a lack of water hasalready led to power cuts where nuclear power stations have been shutdown during droughts. Likewise, treating and pumping drinking water andwaste water uses a lot of energy with the UK water industry accounting foraround 1% of UK CO2 emissions [5]. In our homes domestic water heatingis responsible for 5% of UK CO2 emissions, and 25% of your householdenergy bill [5]. The construction of a house, using a combination ofmethods, requires about 6 million litres of water [5].Throughout the construction cycle, and especially at the end of a structure’slife, large quantities of waste are produced. Significant quantities of wasteare also generated by the construction process itself. Much of this wastageis avoidable on site, but inattention to design detailing, inappropriatematerial, dimensions, late variations, over-ordering, etc. also contribute towaste.Pollution and hazardoussubstances in the natural andbuilt environmentPollution can be defined in many ways: that arising from the builtenvironment (sewage, waste etc.); pollution caused during the manufactureof materials and products; pollution and hazards from the handling and useof materials or from the site itself; and other construction and operationallyrelated activities. The design and construction phases involve thespecification of materials, and the use of plant, processes and techniques.Most also involve extensive disturbances to the existing environment,whether on green field or previously developed sites.Each of these activities poses a risk of introducing pollutants into theenvironment which can affect the workers on site, the neighbourhood, orthe local ground, water and air quality. Similar impacts can occur during theoperational phase of the development. Such disturbances can also upset the 07TBN33 The Impacts of Construction and the Built EnvironmentPage 4 of 6Document Reference: FM-RE-07Revision Status: BEffective Date: 21/09/2010UNCONTROLLED COPY IF PRINTED equilibrium between the ground, water and air and introduce the risk of pollution.In the developed world, human beings spend approximately 90% of their liveswithin buildings [6]. They are exposed to a range of chemicals arising fromfurnishing and finishes. Other practices which take place within the building alsoaffect their physiological and psychological reactions. Increasingly, the designand layout of buildings necessitate active measures to maintain conditions whichensure the health and general well-being of their occupants.The problems of poor internal environment tend to be neglected because theeffects are long term and, with a few exceptions, not immediately lifethreatening. In addition the causes have not been clearly defined; hencesolutions are not self evident. One result of this in the UK is failure to treat theissue seriously. Limited research work has been carried out, so uncertainty ofcauses prevails with little quantitative data available.Planning, land-use andconservationThere is a wide range of environmental issues concerned with the interaction ofthe land use, planning system and the construction industry. Almost alldevelopment undertaken by the construction industry requires planningpermission.The biodiversity on particular sites can be devastated by developments andthrough mineral extraction for the construction industry. However, a wide rangeof nature conservation initiatives and area designations have been developed toprotect habitats.Construction related activity has a significant impact upon transport movements.Considerable pressure can be placed on the local road network and neighbouringuses by quarrying operations. In addition, completed developments and theirinterrelationship with other land uses can influence the propensity to travel andmodal choice. In turn these factors can impact upon the levels of energy usedalong with the pollution and emissions created.The interaction between the built environment and the natural environment alsohas a significant impact on the hydrological system. The combined effect of urbanexpansion and agricultural intensification has exceeded the capacity of the landto absorb exceptional levels of rainfall. At the same time, rainfall has becomemore intensive, concentrated and erratic due to global climate change. Thisnegative interaction is highlighted by an increasing rate of severe floodingwitnessed in the UK, Italy, Germany, Cambodia, Vietnam and India in theperiod 2000–8. The spatial planning system and the design of buildings andlandscapes therefore has a role to play in absorbing the new rainfall peaks,and thereby reducing stress on our engineered drainage systems and riversystems.It is estimated that construction related energy consumption, including bothdirect and indirect activities, amounts to around 50% of national energy use[7]. Land use planning can make a contribution to energy consumptionthrough the configuration and location of buildings as the location ofdevelopments initiated by the client and built by the construction industry islargely controlled by formal planning procedures. However, the success ofthe development in integrating with, and the acceptability of the way inwhich it modifies and interacts with, the surrounding natural and builtenvironment, cannot be ensured wholly by regulations.While the above categorisation provides a convenient framework to discussthe issues, few of the issues can be considered in isolation, and dueconsideration must be given to the numerous interactions andinterdependencies which exist between:the media of land, water and air;the internal and external environment;the local, regional and global consequences arising from certainactivities;behavioural changes (e.g. traffic patterns) and other secondaryimpacts.Some of these interrelationships are illustrated in Figure 1. 07TBN33 The Impacts of Construction and the Built EnvironmentPage 5 of 6Document Reference: FM-RE-07Revision Status: BEffective Date: 21/09/2010UNCONTROLLED COPY IF PRINTED Figure 1: Some interrelationships between the built environment and environmental issues ISSUEEnergy use, global warmingand climate changeResources, waste andrecyclingPollution andHazardous substancesInternal environmentPlanning, land-use andconservation Transport implications Sea level rise Overheating Increased UHI effect Passive heating/cooling Thermal standards forrefurbished buildings Urban form andconfiguration Flooding Biodiversity Water quality Minerals extraction Disposal of spoil Recycling derelict land Re-use of existingbuildings Resources used for majorinfrastructure projects Pollution effect of builtenvironment Waste disposal Maintenance ofenvironmental qualityobjectives Ecosystem conservation Biodiversity conservation Contaminated landregister Estate maintenance Pesticides etc. Orientation daylight andpassive heating Rn-222 Electromagnetic radiationInternal environment Energy use, heating,appliances etc. Flooding Thermal efficiency Reduced ventilationrates/less occupantcontrol Gas from recycled sites Reduced off-gassing fromrecycled products Indoor pollution/ Offgassing from materials Effect on pollution levelsof reduced ventilationrates Smoking Noise from external andInternal environment External air quality Rn-222 and landfill gasesPollution and hazardoussubstances Energy relatedgreenhouse gases Other greenhouse gases Ozone depletion Ozone creation Acidification Ecotoxicity Wastes and pollutionfrom power generation Pollution duringmanufacture Waste production Pollution of primaryresource Recycling contaminatedlandResources, waste and recycling Energy in transport Energy in recycling Use of sustainableresources (e.g. timber) 07TBN33 The Impacts of Construction and the Built EnvironmentPage 6 of 6Document Reference: FM-RE-07Revision Status: BEffective Date: 21/09/2010UNCONTROLLED COPY IF PRINTED ConclusionOur built environment and its interactions with the natural environment arecomplex and have a massive impact on the world around us. Hence sustainabilityis a complex concept which encompasses not just energy but all the resourcesneeded to support human activity. A large part of building sustainably isconcerned with addressing the global warming that is driving climate change;using energy conservation and techniques such as life-cycle assessment tomaintain a balance between capital cost and long-term asset value. It is alsoabout enhancing biodiversity, creating spaces that are healthy, economicallyviable and sensitive to social needs. Rather than constantly battling against thenatural environment, we need to start respecting natural systems and learningfrom ecological processes: creating a better balance between human need andthe wider environment. References1. Hawken, P., Lovins, E and Lovins, H, Natural, Capitalism – Creating thenext Industrial Revolution, Little Brown and Co., 1999 369pp.2. Brown MT, Bardi E. Handbook of energy evaluation. A compendium of datafor energy computation issued in a series of folios. Folio #3: Energy ofecosystems. Center for Environmental Policy, Environmental EngineeringSciences, University of Florida, Gainesville; 2001. Available athttp://www.emergysystems.org/folios.php [accessed 02.06.09.3. Brown M, Ulgiati S. Energy analysis and environmental accounting.Encycloped Energy 2004;2:329–53.4. M. Lenzen and G.J.Treloar (2002) ‘Embodied energy in buildings: woodversus concrete-reply to Börjesson and Gustavsson, Energy Policy, Vol 30,pp. 249–244.5. McCormack MS, Treloar GJ, Palmowski L, Crawford RH (2007). “Modellingdirect and indirect water consumption associated with construction”.Building Research and Information 35(2)6. Clements-Croome D. Creating the productive workplace. London: Taylor&Francis; 2000.7. Kumar R, Kaushik SC. Performance evaluation of green roof and shadingfor thermal protection of buildings. Build Environ 2005;40(11):1505e11Other suggestion reading:Securing the FutureProcuring the FutureCapitalism, As if the World Matters – Jonathon Porritt