1Theoretical approaches to research:The four main approachesQuantitative researchQuantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/post positivist paradigm. Itusually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statisticalcalculations can be made and conclusions drawn.The processResearchers will have one or more hypotheses. These are the questions that they want toaddress which include predictions about possible relationships between the things they want toinvestigate (variables). In order to find answers to these questions, the researchers will alsohave various instruments and materials (e.g. paper or computer tests, observation check listsetc.) and a clearly defined plan of action.Data is collected by various means following a strict procedure and prepared for statisticalanalysis. Nowadays, this is carried out with the aid of sophisticated statistical computerpackages. The analysis enables the researchers to determine to what extent there is arelationship between two or more variables. This could be a simple association (e.g. peoplewho exercise on a daily basis have lower blood pressure) or a causal relationship (e.g. dailyexercise actually leads to lower blood pressure). Statistical analysis permits researchers todiscover complex causal relationships and to determine to what extent one variable influencesanother.The results of statistical analyses are presented in journals in a standard way, the end resultbeing a P value. For people who are not familiar with scientific research jargon, the discussionsections at the end of articles in peer reviewed journals usually describe the results of the studyand explain the implications of the findings in straightforward terms2PrinciplesObjectivity is very important in quantitative research. Consequently, researchers take greatcare to avoid their own presence, behavior or attitude affecting the results (e.g. by changingthe situation being studied or causing participants to behave differently). They also criticallyexamine their methods and conclusions for any possible bias.Researchers go to great lengths to ensure that they are really measuring what they claim to bemeasuring. For example, if the study is about whether background music has a positive impacton restlessness in residents in a nursing home, the researchers must be clear about what kindof music to include the volume of the music, what they mean by restlessness, how to measurerestlessness and what is considered a positive impact. This must all be considered, preparedand controlled in advance.External factors, which might affect the results, must also be controlled for. In the aboveexample, it would be important to make sure that the introduction of the music was notaccompanied by other changes (e.g. the person who brings the CD player chatting with theresidents after the music session) as it might be the other factor which produces the results (i.e.the social contact and not the music). Some possible contributing factors cannot always beruled out but should be acknowledged by the researchers.The main emphasis of quantitative research is on deductive reasoning which tends to movefrom the general to the specific. This is sometimes referred to as a top down approach. Thevalidity of conclusions is shown to be dependent on one or more premises (prior statements,findings or conditions) being valid. Aristotle’s famous example of deductive reasoning was: Allmen are mortal àSocrates is a man à Socrates is mortal. If the premises of an argument areinaccurate, then the argument is inaccurate. This type of reasoning is often also associated withthe fictitious character Sherlock Holmes. However, most studies also include an element ofinductive reasoning at some stage of the research (see section on qualitative research for moredetails).3Researchers rarely have access to all the members of a particular group (e.g. all people withdementia, careers or healthcare professionals). However, they are usually interested in beingable to make inferences from their study about these larger groups. For this reason, it isimportant that the people involved in the study are a representative sample of the widerpopulation/group. However, the extent to which generalizations are possible depends to acertain extent on the number of people involved in the study, how they were selected andwhether they are representative of the wider group. For example, generalizations aboutpsychiatrists should be based on a study involving psychiatrists and not one based onpsychology students. In most cases, random samples are preferred (so that each potentialparticipant has an equal chance of participating) but sometimes researchers might want toensure that they include a certain number of people with specific characteristics and this wouldnot be possible using random sampling methods. General nature of the results is not limited togroups of people but also to situations. It is presumed that the results of a laboratoryexperiment reflect the real life situation which the study seeks to clarify.When looking at results, the P value is important. P stands for probability. It measures thelikelihood that a particular finding or observed difference is due to chance. The P value isbetween 0 and 1. The closer the result is to 0, the less likely it is that the observed difference isdue to chance. The closer the result is to 1, the greater the likelihood that the finding is due tochance (random variation) and that there is no difference between the groups/variables.Qualitative researchQualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist paradigmwhich emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analyzing andattempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behavior and experience,including contradictory beliefs, behaviors and emotions. Researchers are interested in gaining arich and complex understanding of people’s experience and not in obtaining information whichcan be generalized to other larger groups.4The processThe approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive which means that theydevelop a theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the basis of the data that they havecollected. This involves a move from the specific to the general and is sometimes called abottom-up approach. However, most research projects also involve a certain degree ofdeductive reasoning (see section on quantitative research for more details).Qualitative researchers do not base their research on pre-determined hypotheses.Nevertheless, they clearly identify a problem or topic that they want to explore and may beguided by a theoretical lens – a kind of overarching theory which provides a framework for theirinvestigation.The approach to data collection and analysis is methodical but allows for greater flexibility thanin quantitative research. Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation andinteraction with the participants e.g. through participant observation, in-depth interviews andfocus groups. It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analyzed.Data collection may be carried out in several stages rather than once and for all. Theresearchers may even adapt the process mid-way, deciding to address additional issues ordropping questions which are not appropriate on the basis of what they learn during theprocess. In some cases, the researchers will interview or observe a set number of people. Inother cases, the process of data collection and analysis may continue until the researchers findthat no new issues are emerging.PrinciplesResearchers will tend to use methods which give participants a certain degree of freedom andpermit spontaneity rather than forcing them to select from a set of pre-determined responses(of which none might be appropriate or accurately describe the participant’s thoughts, feelings,attitudes or behavior) and to try to create the right atmosphere to enable people to express5themselves. This may mean adopting a less formal and less rigid approach than that used inquantitative research.It is believed that people are constantly trying to attribute meaning to their experience.Therefore, it would make no sense to limit the study to the researcher’s view or understandingof the situation and expect to learn something new about the experience of the participants.Consequently, the methods used may be more open-ended, less narrow and more exploratory(particularly when very little is known about a particular subject). The researchers are free to gobeyond the initial response that the participant gives and to ask why, how, in what way etc. Inthis way, subsequent questions can be tailored to the responses just given.Qualitative research often involves a smaller number of participants. This may be because themethods used such as in-depth interviews are time and labor intensive but also because a largenumber of people are not needed for the purposes of statistical analysis or to makegeneralizations from the results.The smaller number of people typically involved in qualitative research studies and the greaterdegree of flexibility does not make the study in any way “less scientific” than a typicalquantitative study involving more subjects and carried out in a much more rigid manner. Theobjectives of the two types of research and their underlying philosophical assumptions aresimply different. However, as discussed in the section on “philosophies guiding research”, thisdoes not mean that the two approaches cannot be used in the same study.Pragmatic approach to research (mixed methods)The pragmatic approach to science involves using the method which appears best suited to theresearch problem and not getting caught up in philosophical debates about which is the bestapproach. Pragmatic researchers therefore grant themselves the freedom to use any of themethods, techniques and procedures typically associated with quantitative or qualitativeresearch. They recognize that every method has its limitations and that the differentapproaches can be complementary.6They may also use different techniques at the same time or one after the other. For example,they might start with face-to-face interviews with several people or have a focus group andthen use the findings to construct a questionnaire to measure attitudes in a large scale samplewith the aim of carrying out statistical analysis.Depending on which measures have been used, the data collected is analyzed in theappropriate manner. However, it is sometimes possible to transform qualitative data intoquantitative data and vice versa although transforming quantitative data into qualitative data isnot very common.Being able to mix different approaches has the advantages of enabling triangulation.Triangulation is a common feature of mixed methods studies. It involves, for example:• the use of a variety of data sources (data triangulation)• the use of several different researchers (investigator triangulation)• the use of multiple perspectives to interpret the results (theory triangulation)• the use of multiple methods to study a research problem (methodological triangulation)In some studies, qualitative and quantitative methods are used simultaneously. In others, firstone approach is used and then the next, with the second part of the study perhaps expandingon the results of the first. For example, a qualitative study involving in-depth interviews orfocus group discussions might serve to obtain information which will then be used to contributetowards the development of an experimental measure or attitude scale, the results of whichwill be analyzed statistically.Advocacy/participatory approach to research (emancipator)To some degree, researchers adopting an advocacy/participatory approach feel that theapproaches to research described so far do not respond to the needs or situation of peoplefrom marginalized or vulnerable groups. As they aim to bring about positive change in the livesof the research subjects, their approach is sometimes described as emancipator. It is not a7neutral stance. The researchers are likely to have a political agenda and to try to give thegroups they are studying a voice. As they want their research to directly or indirectly result insome kind of reform, it is important that they involve the group being studied in the research,preferably at all stages, so as to avoid further marginalizing them.The researchers may adopt a less neutral position than that which is usually required inscientific research. This might involve interacting informally or even living amongst the researchparticipants (who are sometimes referred to as co-researchers in recognition that the study isnot simply about them but also by them). The findings of the research might be reported inmore personal terms, often using the precise words of the research participants. Whilst thistype of research could by criticized for not being objective, it should be noted that for somegroups of people or for certain situations, it is necessary as otherwise the thoughts, feelings orbehavior of the various members of the group could not be accessed or fully understood.Vulnerable groups are rarely in a position of power within society. For this reason, researchersare sometimes members of the group they are studying or have something in common with themembers of the group.
