Lecture
Fundamentals of Art
Our understanding of art will be increased on many levels, and the physical description of a work of art is the best place to start. The fundamentals are essentially guidelines or things to think about when observing the physical qualities of artwork. These are not rules, just guidelines. Artists will intentionally go against certain ideas within these elements for effect.
There are seven fundamentals we will be discussion: form, line, shape, value, texture, color, and space. While other disciplines within the arts may combine a few of these to leave us with four elements, because we are looking at certain artists and artwork seven elements may make thing clearer.
Form
Visual forming is when the eye and mind organize visual differences by integrating optical units into a unified whole. We instinctively try to make order out of chaos, and an artist seeks unity to create a complete piece.
Physical Descriptors
picture plane – flat surface on which artist executes pictorial image, art on a canvas is 2 dimensional and therefore all 3 dimensional possibilities come from illusion of depth
picture frame – outer most limits or boundary of picture plane, not literally the frame we use on some pictures
positive & negative space – usually positive is the fore grounded object, initial selection; negative is what remains
The figure is the postive space and the background is the negative space.
Principles of organization
These principles are only guides not laws (helpers).
harmony – reconciliation between forces of opposition, works with rhythm & repetition
rhythm – continuance of flow
simple – repeats only one type of measure
composite – two or more reoccurring measure which exist simultaneously
motif – equivalent to theme in music, can be objective (borrows from nature) or invented (from configurations found in art elements, their direction, or space)
pattern – establish harmonious relationship part, usually similar or repetitive in character, lead eye from one element to another
repetition – rhythm is result of repletion, re-emphasis visual units again & again in a marked pattern
variety – counterweight of harmony, adds interest to total form
contrast & elaboration – reconciles visual differences, overemphasizing an element or part
Can you spot the repetition,pattern, variety, etc…
balance – horizontal, vertical, radial – felt optical equilibrium between all parts of the work (size, proportion, quantity, & direction)
symmetrical balance – equal distribution on both sides of vertical axis
approximate symmetry – somewhat varied but vertical axis is felt
radial balance – two or more forces identical in strength & character around a center point
asymmetrical balance – visual control of contrasts through felt equilibrium (i.e. strong colors balanced by large open spaces)
Sometimes balance is straightforward. If you use white, you need dark below to balance it. How else is this balanced?
Balance can also be a bit tricky. Is her dress a pattern found somewhere else? How about the pitchfork and the way it’s repeated in his overalls?
movement – picture is static, illusion of movement, carry eye throughout elements in picture
What is going on here? Is someone going somewhere? Interesting considering that nothing is actually moving.
proportion – ratio of one part to another, expressed in size, numbers, position, & space
dominance – one part is more important than another, emphasis can be produced by contrast in scale, in character, & any physical properties of elements
economy – if a part works in an organization with respect to the whole – keep it, sacrifice elements that cause confusion, ‘abstract’ particular details in order to strengthen organizing connections of picture
space – should be consistent
Line
A line is a graphic device made to function symbolically in artistic & literary expression. A line can work on two levels: subjective & objective. On a objective level, it can describe simple measurements & surface characteristics. On a subjective level, a line can be modified to suggest many emotional states & responses.
A line is a bit unusual because they are not found in nature. They are a man made invention, an abstraction, developed as agent for simplification of statements of visual fact & for symbolizing graphic ideas. Nature only has mass. Have you ever seen a person with an outline? Perhaps the horizon, but actually since it’s a 3 dimensional world we only perceive a line.
Physical characteristics of line
measure – length & width of line
type – straight (repetition), curved (movement, visually entertaining), angular/diagonal (create excitement & confusion)
direction – exists irrespective of component movement within line, zigzag but may be curved, horizontal (serenity & stability), vertical (poise), diagonal (agitation & movement)
location – serve to unify or divide, balance or unbalance
character – related to medium of line, expressive quality
Here we see the use of line as an outline to define the objects.
Jackson Pollock uses line exclusively to create a subjective approach to painting.
Shape
Shape is usually a perceived area of value, line, color. The shape may have exact limits or perhaps its true limits cannot be determined. There is no end to the variety of shapes. Shapes can be used to achieve balance & flow of the viewer’s eye.
Shapes can be:
natural – it seems to be produced by action of natural forces
abstract – contrived by artist
biomorphic – curvilinear shapes in art which suggest possibility of life (like a kidney bean shape)
symbolic
geometric – shapes which have machine-like precision (cubists)
used to add to pictorial depth – shapes are given volume, 3D, linear perspective
soft edge or hard edge
Shapes can also promote emotional reactions. The difference between a softer curve and the hard edge of a square can go a long way in establishing a mood or tone in a work of art.
Shapes can be used to show the make up of objects such as this cubist piece by Braques.
Shapes can even extend to the way a picture is framed. Not all works of art adhere to a rectangular frame.
Value
Value is the relative degree of lightness or darkness given to an area by the amount of light reflected from it. This can be attributed to the result of pressure exerted on medium. Value can be created though line to create areas of value (cross-hatching). Value can help define and add to the description of objects, shapes, & space.
Value comes from the relationship of light rays. Objects cast shadows when the object blocks rays. In nature, light and shadows exist as byproducts of strictly physical laws. An artist must adjust and take liberties with these physical laws which can lead to expressive uses of value. For example, using dark areas to invoke gloom, mystery, drama, or menace.
Chiaroscuro
Chiaroscuro is the technique of representation which concentrates on the effects of blending light and shade on objects to create the illusion of space or atmosphere (sometimes called modeling). This can be traced back to Medieval artist Giotto (1276-1335). The idea of chiaroscuro is also discussed in other media such as film.
Notice how Giotto uses light and dark to create a sense of depth.
Tenebrism
Tenebrism is a style which exaggerates or emphasizes the effects of chiaroscuro. The lights become lighter and the darks become darker. This style was brought to the forefront by Rembrandt.
In this famous painting (The Nightwatch) by Rembrandt you can see that certain areas seem to glow with light while the dark areas are extremely dark.
Texture
Texture is the surface character of a material which may be experienced through touch, or the illusion of touch. This may be produce by natural forces or through manipulation of art elements by the artist. Although we discuss texture more easily with sculpture, there are other ways in which texture becomes important.
Sometimes, artists will choose to attach real material to their canvas. Artists such as Van Gogh painted up their canvas to create a texture. Artists have also used papier Collé (use of paper) and collage (includes more than just paper).
If you could touch this Van Gogh, you would feel the ridges of the built up paint.
Is this a painting or sculpture? Does it matter?
Color
The use of color effects emotion directly & immediately. It begins and is derived from light. The colors of the spectrum represent greatest intensity possible while pigments are not as strong or intense and are not as pure. When you mix all colors of light, you get white; but if you mix all colors of pigment you get gray or black. Objects reflect and absorb light to give color. Therefore black reflects no color and represents the absence of color while white reflects all color.
Properties of Color
Hue
Hue is used to designate the common name of color such as red or yellow. It indicates the colors position on the spectrum. The primary colors you see on the following color wheel cannot be created from mixing.
Value
Value is the characteristic representing amount of light reflected, which we discussed in more detail when we looked at value as a fundamental. Typically this is achieved by adding whites and blacks to colors. Dark green would denote a value.
Intensity
Intensity is the saturation or strength of a color determined by the quality of light reflected from it. We can use the terms vivid (high intensity) and dull low intensity) to describe the intensity. The purest and most intense colors are unmixed primary colors.
The Color Wheel
From the color, the primary colors are yellow, red, and blue. When you mix these together you get the secondary colors: orange, green, and violet. When you mix a primary and secondary you get tertiary colors such as blue green and orange red.
Complementary colors are colors that have extreme contrast. They can be found directly across from each other on the color wheel. Red and green are complementary colors. The effect of placing complementary colors beside each other is called simultaneous contrast which makes both colors more vibrant.
Analogous colors are colors that are closely related in hue. If we divide the color wheel in half, you can create two different sets of color. Warm colors are the colors red, orange, and yellow. These colors give the viewer feelings of warmth or anger and can be used to represent fire or the sun. Cool colors, blue,purple, and green; create feelings of calm or even loneliness. Cool colors also tend to recede in an image while warm colors feel like they are coming toward the viewer.
Uses of Color
give special quality to pictorial field – value difference & backward forward movement
create mood & symbolize idea
vehicle for expression of personal emotions & feeling
attract & direct attention
accomplish aesthetic appeal
identify objects
Warm and cool colors being used to define objects. Here it’s people at a beach.
Color can be used to show depth and be used in place of black to add shadow (which is actually more realistic).
Sometimes artists will limit their color use. Here is Picasso using a monochromatic color scheme.
Warm and cool colors being used to provide a narrative. What does this woman think of herself?
Space
Although this is not generally considered an element, it is present in all art. All spatial implications are mentally conditioned by environment & experience of the viewer. Vision is experienced through eyes but interpreted though mind. When looking at a piece of art, we are only seeing a 2 dimensional space which means that the suggestion of space is an illusion created by the artist.
Venus is framed by the space around her.
In this image, space and object placement are being used to focus the viewer on certain objects. What part are you drawn to and why?
Depth in a painting deals with this third dimension. Artwork can have deep space where the illusion recedes from picture plane (Botticelli, Poussin, Rembrandt, Corot). There can also be shallow space where the illusion of depth creates a box or stage (Jacques Louis David, Gaughin, Matisse).
Traditional methods of spatial indication
size – larger is nearer, smaller is farther away
position – horizon line divides picture, below line is closer, above line is farther away
overlapping – closer is in front, farther is behind
sharp & diminishing detail – clearer is closer, blurry is farther away
converging parallels – related to perspective, lines go back & will converge
linear perspective
Other Uses of Space
Aside from the handling of spatial relations and depth, space could also be used to show implied movement or perhaps space in the subject matter.
Do you see the nude descending the staircase?
Is this when Jesus was crucified? What kind of space is this?
MEDIEVAL ART
The middle ages extended from 550-1400 AD, and can be separated into a few parts.
550-750 – migratory period
750-1000 – Carolingian & Ottoman Empires
1000-1150 – Romanesque
1150-1400 – Gothic
One of the major characteristics of all Medieval art was religious iconography symbolism. Just like in the architecture of the era, the art is deeply religious based. During the Romanesque period, monks placed illustrations in manuscripts. Other artists created large tapestries. These early works had one thing in common, they were all flat and without depth or any representation of 3 dimensional space.
Key points for Medieval Art
religious subject matter – iconography
flatness – all perspective was for effect,figures in front & higher & larger are more important than figures on bottom & lower & smaller
Early manuscripts were places for many illustrations.
Even though figures are in fron of each other, there is no accurate portrayel of depth.
Even Giotto prescribed to this psychologcal perspective early in his career.
Giotto
Giotto di Bondone was considered one of the first artists to usher in the Renaissance. He was working at the end of the medieval era and introduced the world to perspective using his technique of chiaroscuro. Even though he never reached the linear perspective of the Renaissance, he is considered to be a leader towards the discovery of this type of perspective. His perspectives are more psychological than real.
Part of the reason Giotto was successful was his moving away from symbolism & medieval mysticism to portray understandable human situations, or naturalism. He starts with people therefore his perspective & psychological space less important than expressive intentions.
Adoration of the Magi. Notice the depth of the manager, but yet the use of religious symbolism.
Lamentation over Christ. Even though there is some depth, Christ is still the clear focus as he is bigger, higher since he is connected to the angels, and in front (the only people in front of Christ have their backs turned.
The Ascension of St. Francis. Perpective is becoming more important, but look at the top of the image. St. Francis is with the angels.
THE RENAISSANCE
The Early Renaissance (or Florentine Renaissance) begins in Florence, Italy in the 15th century. Partly due to the wealth of Florence, the Renaissance begins here. The Renaissance marked the rebirth of:
classical ideals and culture
education
philosophy
power of the Monarchy
Greco-Roman Artistic style
The people of the Renaissance had a desire to understand the natural world & imitate its visual appearance. They were very self consciousness. Most of their artwork was still a little religious but more lifelike. They tended to use not only religious subject matter, but also mythological subject matter. The stories were more important than the religious symbolism. During this time frame, portraits became very important to reflect needs of culture driven by material prosperity, civic pride, & personal pleasure. Among the first Renaissance artists were Sandro Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci.
The Studio
During the Renaissance, the idea of the studio was developed. The main artist ran the studio while apprentices copied & worked in master’s style to help finish & create master’s artwork. This was beneficial for both parties because it allowed a master to create more work and an apprentice on the job training. However, it became very difficult to know what a master actually created. Since it was not typical to sign a piece of art, any apprentice trying to become a master could have some of his art attributed to his master since he would be working in the master’s style.
Perspective
The idea of perspective came about during the Renaissance. On Geometry in Art & Architecture, there is an in-depth explanation of how it was developed. The main innovators were Brunelleschi (develops linear perspective through hands on experimentation) and Alberti (stated linear perspective in math & geometry)
Allegory of Spring (Primavera) – Botticelli
To demonstrate the focus on narrative, we can look at Primavera and its story.
8 figures, Venus in the center
form octaval relationship – running the gamut of myth & metaphor
drama reads from right to left
gentle south wind, Zephyr, is pursuing the shy nymph of springtime, Chloris. As he impregnates her, flowers spring from her lips and she is transformed into Flora (also a reference to Florence, Italy), with flowery robe. Blind Cupid is shooting an arrow towards Castitas (Chastity)[youthful center dancer] her partners are bejeweled Pulchritudo (Beauty) and Voluptas (Passion) (in Pagan Mysteries of the Renaissance – Edgar Wind sees the initiation rites of the virginal Castitas into the fullness of beauty and passion). Far left is Mercury – leader of the three graces and God of Winds lifts his Caduceus (staff) to complete circle by directing Zephyr to drive away wintry clouds and make way for Spring (philosophical – Mercury is dispelling the clouds that veil the intellect so that light of reason can shine through). Presiding over scene in meditation, figure of the Goddess of Love, Venus. Love is the tie that binds picture & world together
Roman Renaissance or High Renaissance (late 15th, early 16th C.)
Included artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael. The art from this area and period would become more representational as perspective was perfected.
Donaello – David (1412)
Sandro Botticelli – Adoration of the Magi (1470-75)
Sandro Botticelli – Birth of Venus (1485-86)
Leonardo da Vinci – Virgin of the Rocks (1483-86)
Leonardo da Vinci – The Last Supper (1488)
Leonardo da Vinci – Mona Lisa (1503-04)
Michelangelo – David (1501-04)
Michelangelo – Pieta (Rome – Basilica of St. Peter)(1498-99)
Michelangelo – Sistine Chapel (1509-12)
Raphael – School of Athens (1510-11)
Northern Style (1500’s)
The Northern style came from Flanders (which is located around present day Denmark and Scandinavia). It includes artists such as Jan van Eyck and Hieronymus Bosch. There was also a Northern style developed in Germany as well and included artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Matthias Grünewald. The one thing that sets this style apart from the Italian Renaissance style was their use of symbolism. As you look at the examples, you will no doubt be amazed at the level of detail placed in the work of van Eyck and Bosch. Every detail is put in place for a reason and purpose. A dog becomes a symbol for fidelity and so on.
Jan Van Eyck – Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami (1434)
Jan Van Eyck – detail of Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami (1434)
Jan Van Eyck – detail of Marriage of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami (1434)
Hieronymus Bosch – Garden of Earthly Delights (1504)
Hieronymus Bosch – left panel of Garden of Earthly Delights (1504)
Hieronymus Bosch – center panel of Garden of Earthly Delights (1504)
Hieronymus Bosch – right panel Garden of Earthly Delights (1504)
Hieronymus Bosch – outside when closed of Garden of Earthly Delights (1504)
Albrecht Dürer – Adoration of the Magi (1504)
Albrecht Dürer – Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513)
Albrecht Dürer – The Four Horsemen (1498)
Matthias Grünewald – Isenheim Altar (1510-15)
Venetian Renaissance (International Mannerism)
This later movement is characterized by bolder colors and a reversion to more religious subject matter. Artists of the era include Giovanni Bellini, Titian, Tintoretto, El Greco, and Giovanni Bologna.
Bellini – St. Jerome Reading (1480-85)
Bellini – St. Francis in the Desert (1480)
Titian – Assumption of the Virgin (1516-18)
Titian – Venus and Cupid with Organist (1548-49)
Tintoretto – Last Supper (1592-94)
Tintoretto – Christ at the Sea of Galilee (1575)
El Greco – Pentecost (1600)
El Greco – The Burial of Count Orgasz (1586)
ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI (1593-1652)
Artemisia Gentileschi was a painter of the late Renaissance. She was recognized as having genius, but monstrous because she was a woman exercising a creative talent thought to be exclusively male. Until recently, she suffered scholarly rejection. Because her father, Orazio Gentileschi, was a painter and she was a woman, many of her pieces were attributed to other artists. Susanna and the Elders was originally attributed to her father along with other early works.
Orazio Gentileschi – The Annunciation
Artemisia Gentileschi – Susanna and the Elders
Her mother died when she was 12 and her father trained her as an artist & introduced her to artists’ works (Caravaggio). She had little or no schooling, and learned to read & write as an adult. She produced Susanna and the Elders when she was 17.
Rape & Trial
Her father worked with another artist, Agostino Tassi, who Artemisia accused of raping her in 1612 at the age of 19. Her father filed suit on her behalf. We know of the trial because the transcripts of the trial survive. Key notes on the trial:
Tuzia, supposedly an older friend of Artemisia who lived in the same house as the Gentileschi’s, betrayed Artemisia by letting Tassi in to Artemisia’s house through her apartment.
Tassi was a convicted rapist, who had previously served time in jail, and had been known to have raped both his sister-in-law and his previous wife. His wife was missing, presumed dead, and everyone believed that he had hired bandits to kill her. Artemisia did not know that he was married until the middle of the trial.
During the trial, Artemisia was tortured with the sibille, thumbscrews, involving cords of rope tied around her hands and pulled tightly, in order to “prove” that she was telling the truth. During the torture, which of course seriously injured her hands, she was repeatedly asked whether or not Tassi had raped her, and she continually responded, “it is true, it is true.”
Tassi claimed she was “an insatiable whore” & was not a virgin – not a good painter so he was teaching her perspective
Artemisia claimed he raped her again & again on promise of marrying her
Orazio claimed friends talked of Tassi boasting
Women had very little power during this era and one would suppose that it was possible that Tassi would not be convicted. We can suspect, however, that Agostino Tassi was convicted, as he was held in prison for eight more months after the trial, but then released prematurely by the judge who apparently pardoned him. This moment of her life had a great impact on her. Soon after, she painted Judith Slaying Holofernes (1612-1613), which you will see is quite a powerful piece.
Later, Artemisia was married to Pietros Antonio de Stiattesi to save her reputation. She had a daughter, but separated from her husband a few years afterwards. She became member of Academy of Design in Florence in 1616, it was a “big honor” especially because of the support of patron Grand Duke Cosimo II of Medici. She died around 1652.
She did receive acclaim along with criticism. Pierre Dumonstier le Neveu made a drawing of her hand holding a paintbrush, calling it a drawing of the hand of “the excellent and wise noble woman of Rome, Artemisia”. We also found a commemorative medal bearing her portrait made some time between 1625 and 1630 that calls her pictrix celebris or “celebrated woman painter”. Jerome David painted her portrait with the inscription calling her “the famous Roman painter”.
Her life is an interesting tale that could lead one to wonder, how does this effect her artwork. Through an analysis of three of her paintings, we will explore this.
Susanna and the Elders (1610)
Story
Susanna used to bath in garden, 2 elder men hid there & waited for her
once she was alone & naked, 2 men revealed themselves and threatened her
if she did not give herself to them, they would declare that they had seen her commit adultery with a young man
crime was punishable by death
she resisted & was tried in court & condemned to death
at last moment, Daniel (one of the prophets) came and cross examined the 2 elders separately
he found evidence to be contradictory & this proved Susanna’s innocence
The painting shows strong sense of perspective and for a young artist it’s remarkable. Foreshortening in 3 bodies is reinforced by beautiful flesh tones of Susanna & details of elders’ robes. The “fluffiness” of clouds in contrast to solid stone. The contrast between weight of elders dominating top of painting & lightness, instability of Susanna echoes narrative from strangely modern feminist perspective. Susanna is not in pleasurable position of voyeuristic intent. Compare Gentileschi’s painting to Tintoretto’s Susanna and the Elders (1568-70).
Tintoretto – Susanna and the Elders
Artemisia Gentileschi – Susanna and the Elders
Judith Beheading Holofernes (1612-13)
Story
biblical story of Judith, Jewish Heroine
Judith was wealthy & beautiful widow who lived in Bethulia
Assyrian army laid siege to the town & were intent on destroying it
Judith orchestrated plan to save her town
she dressed extravagantly & with her maid, Abra, left for Assyrian lines
Judith soon gained access to Assyrian leader Holofernes
captivated by Judith, Holofernes planned a banquet at which he would seduce her
at banquet Holofernes became drunk
when he was no longer powerful, Judith seized his sword and cut his head off
Abra put head in sack & left for Bethulia
eventually Assyrians thrown into chaos & were defeated
Compare to Caravaggio’s Judith and Holofernes (1598-99). The positioning of the figures aims focus to the act, rather than on a figure. Gentileschi used Judith as device to gain attention. Her arms are rigid & stiff; not able to hold head & sword comfortably, but instead of being unrealistic it shows strong sense of movement. Judith looks composed, determined, and angry instead of struggling. Abra shows more effort but still determination, her position gives painting a downward pushing movement in contrast to Judith pulling away & to the right in the Caravaggio painting. Holofernes is struggling; not yet dead, but feeling pain of death. Coloring enhances sense of movement & violence. The background is dark (mostly black & browns) which helps depict the scene in glowing light. The dominant color is red. The viewer is able to see the painting in one glance. The subject is common, usually painter identifies with Holofernes but here it’s Judith. This could be due to the fact that Artemisia is a woman.
Caravaggio – Judith and Holofernes
Artemisia Gentileschi – Judith Beheading Holofernes
The lines represent the focus and flow of the viewers eyes on the painting.
The painting could be strongly suggestive of the turmoil Artemisia was facing which would explain its strongly literal interpretation.
Self Portrait as the Allegory of Painting (1630)
Gentileschi has painted herself in the guise of Pittura. Pittura was most usually portrayed as a number of visual symbols, a woman wearing a mask around her neck for imitation, tousled hair as a signature of artistic frenzy, the pose and composition of the subject and other various displays of the technical ability of the artist such as changes in color and surface texture. All represented by the difficult pose of Artemisia peering around the canvas to study her model, the mask she is wearing around her neck, her unkempt hair style and lastly, the painterly depiction of her dress.
Mary Garrard comments:
The image that Artemisia created of herself is not as simple as it appears. It was not even simple to create, since in order to paint herself in near-profile, she would have had to use a double mirror. But whether or not we stop to consider how she managed to paint herself in profile, we nevertheless recognize that the image of the artist in the act of painting (or rather, about to begin a painting) is a faithful reflection of the actual means by which this picture was created: the artist looks into the light, bending around the canvas to see her model, which is her own reflection in a mirror. All self-portraits require the aid of mirrors, of course, yet we are made more conscious of Artemisia’s use of the mirror by the profile self-image, and by our perpetual confrontation by the artist’s searching gaze at her model, implicitly herself. This highly calculated self-image – an image – we must keep in mind, that has been announced by the artist to be identical with the art of painting – is thus not only a comment on the value of the artist’s work as process rather than product; it also tells us something about Artemisia’s idea of artistic inspiration, and her thoughts on the doctrine of imitation.
Is Artemisia an example of a woman in a man’s world? Is her art a representation of her struggles as a woman, or even as a result of the rape and trial? We will be discussing these issues ion the graded discussion for the week.
MODERNISM
Many movement occur within a short time frame and happen concurrently. We will focus on a few of the more well known movements. We begin our discussion with what is considered to be the first piece of Modern Art. We then end our discussion with where we are now as we look at the defining characteristics of Postmodern Art.
Manet’s Olympia
Please listen and watch the following presentation on Olympia. The information contained within will present the painting to you and discuss its importance.
The main characteristics that make Olympia modern:
technique
subject matter
reaction
Modern Art Movements
Modern Art is characterized by many movements that occur over a very short time. Different parts of the world also have different movements that may resemble each other, but are distinct because of their origin. This can lead to a confusing mix of styles and ideas, which is exasperated due to artists working in and through many different movements. The following list is still an incomplete list of Modern Art Movements, but covers the major ones, their time frame, location if important, and major artists.
Impressionism (1870’s) – French movement [Monet, Renoir, Degas]
Post-Impressionism (1880’s-1910) – offshoots of Impressionism [Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin]
Pointillism or Divisionism (1880’s) – use of tiny primary-color dots to generate secondary colors [Seurat]
Expressionism (1905-1930) – German movement [Nolde, Kandinsky]
Fauvism (1909) – French version of Expressionism, liberation of color [Matisse]
Cubism (1909-1940) – break up of objects, in Paris (1907-1914) [Braque, Picasso]
Futurism (1909) – Italy [Marinetti]
Constructivism (1917) – Moscow [Lissitzky]
Dada (1916) – nonsense [Duchamp]
Surrealism (1924-1940) – reject rational in favor of irrational, unconscious, Freud big influence [Dali, Ernst]
Abstract Expressionism (1940’s, 50’s) – New York, abandoned representation completely, big scale [Pollock, de Kooning]
Color Field (1950’s) – emotional impact of large fields of color [Rothko]
Pop Art (1960’s) – reproduce images from popular mass culture [Warhol, Lichtenstein]
Minimalism & Hard Edge Abstraction (1960’s) – objects are stripped down to their elemental, geometric form, and presented in an impersonal manner [Stella, Flavin]
Photorealism (1970’s) – copy photos exactly [Estes, Close]
IMPRESSIONISM TO CUBISM
Impressionism (1870’s)
Impressionism is focused on transitory visual impressions, often from nature, with emphasis on the changing effects of light & color. It is a conceptual approach that is based on ideas about the nature in which we see rather than actual visual experience. These artists believed in painting in the open air to reach an emotional contact with subject. They were attempting to capture “impression” of subject.
Their technique came out of the haste needed to capture the moment. To achieve perceptual reality, they eliminated black from their paintings. Shadows & outlines don’t exist in nature, shadows are painted in colors complementary to that of the object.
Even though they were moving away from tradition they wanted to be accepted a traditional, conventional way. This was also a moment in time where the- art market is growing which means there is more money to be made and a greater ability to do prints. However, this led to more criticism hence the critic emerged as a figure of significance and a guide to the public in their art buying.
Monet – Rouen Cathedral
Monet – Rouen Cathedral
Monet – Water Lilies
Monet – Water Lilies with Clouds
Monet – Lily Pond
Remoir – On the Terrace
Remoir – Waltz
Renoir – Seine at Asnieves
Degas – Ballet Dancers
Degas – Blue Dancers
Degas – Dancer
Rodin – Burghers at Calais
Rodin – Balzac
Rodin – Gates of Hell
Post-Impressionism
Post-Impressionism begins as a movement away from Impressionism that was influenced heavily by three factors: Japanese Woodblocks, African Art, and Primitivism.
Influence of Japanese Woodblocks
Between 1660-1860, woodblocks were at the end of a long tradition. Japan opened doors to the West in 1860 which led to important works of art being exported. Woodblocks were executed on a ground of gold leaf and were usually done on screens. The are characterized by flat, unmodulated colors, undulating lines, daring use of empty space, startling perspective, vantage points. They were rapidly produced and typically depicted scenes of everyday life. By the mid 19th C., landscapes were added to their repertoire.
They had little interest in the picturesque and gave attention to bold contrasts & dramatic arrangements of abstract shapes & colors. These artists also reduced sense of continuity between near & far (flattened the image). There was an immediate impact when the art arrived in the West. Monet & Degas bought them, while Van Gogh said his work was “founded on Japanese art.” Another name for this influence is Japonisme. This increase the European artists’ interest in casual urban subjects and gave them a fresh approach to composition & color.
Kuniyoshi
Hiroshige
Hokusai – Great Wave
Primitivism
Primitivism was an influence where artists embraced art forms of wide variety of tribal people. Artists were traveling to places such as Fiji and were viewing native artworks. These works were flat and two-dimensional. It was a back to basics approach to art. Gauguin is heavily influenced by primitivism.
African Art
There were also great displays of African art that had a direct impact as well. While only subtle influence is seen in Post-Impressionism, Picasso becomes heavily influenced later in Cubism.
Post-Impressionism (1880’s-1910)
Artists were dissatisfied with Impressionism & Expressionism. Major artists of this movement were Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, and Paul Gauguin.
Cezanne – Card Players
Cezanne – Still Life with Oranges
Gauguin – Yellow Christ
Gauguin – Where Do We Come From, Where Are We Going (shows influence of primitivism)
Van Gogh – Wheatfields with Cyprus
Van Gogh – Starry Night
Van Gogh – Self Portrait with Bandaged Ear (notice the Japanese Woodblock behind him)
Van Gogh – Crows Over Wheatfield (One of his last paintings before attempting to commit suicide. Could you interpret this as symbolic of death?)
Pointillism
On a side note to Post-Impressionism, George Seurat essentially created his own movement called Pointillism or Divisionism. He used colored dots placed beside each other to make colors stronger & mix. His scientific approach was not as successful as he hoped since this color mixing actually comes out gray.
Expressionism (1905-1930)
Expressionism is considered art that uses emphasis & distortion to communicate emotion. The subject may evoke strong feelings such as death, anguish, or torture. The expressionists emphasized color at the expense of line, mostly due to the fact that color has less chance of rational explanation.
Expressionism was a German movement that was exemplified by two groups: Die Brücke (The Bridge) and Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider). Die Brücke was trying to bridge a number of different styles. Their lack of cohesion was reflective of the upheaval of World War I. Der Blaue Reiter focused more on contrasts & combinations of abstract forms & pure colors. Wassily Kandinsky was a major artists from Der Blaue Reiter.
Kandinsky – Yellow, Red, and Blue
Kandinsky – Improvisation 30
Cubism (1907)
Cubism was created not as a movement but as something between two friends, Georges Braque & Pablo Picasso. One can imagine them exchanging ideas in a Paris cafe and then going back to their studies to outdo one another. It was a rivalry that would go back & forth trying to out-art each other. The art that was produced fragmented viewpoints. They create two veins of cubism, analytic and synthetic. Analytic was a fracturing of perception. Quite often they would show an object from many perspectives. Synthetic was developed from collage (which comes from cubism). It was part-painting and part-sculpture. The Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History has a more in-depth essay.
Braque – Bottles and Fishes
Braque – Glass, Carafe and Newspapers
Picasso – Ma Jolie
Picasso – Guitar, Newspapers, Glass and Bottle
Picasso would go on to create even more masterpieces of Modern Art.
Le Demoiselles d’Avignon. Notice the use of African masks on the figures to the right.
Guernica
DADA TO POSTMODERN
Dada & Surrealism
Dada (1916) was introduced in a manifesto by André Breton. He wrote that the artist was the product and the property of bourgeois society and that their work was totally irrelevant. Out of this frustration comes nonsense art. Marcel Duchamp exemplifies this moment with his readymades which are normal everyday objects which he calls art. Is Dada a joke? Some academics say it is a criticism of the popular art and has become an anti-art or non-art.
Foutain (Yes it is a urinal.)
Readymade
Bride Stripped (Large Glass)
LHOOQ (A moustache on the Mona Lisa?)
Surrealism (1924-1940)
Surrealism explored the unconscious, using images from dreams. Many of the ideas come from the research of Sigmund Freud. They used spontaneous techniques & featured unexpected juxtapositions of objects. Surrealism was defined in 1st manifesto of 1924 as “pure psychic automatism by which it is intended to express, either verbally or in writing, the true function of thought. Thought dictated in the absence of all control exerted by reason, and outside all aesthetic or moral preoccupations.” A major artist of the movement was Salvador Salvador Dali who became very interested in portraying dreams. One of the main reasons for this movement was World War II which caused upheaval & problems and led to a change in ideals & emotions.
Persistance of Memory
Burning Giraffe
Last Supper
Slave Market with Disappearing Bust of Voltaire (Look carefully and you will see either two nuns or the bust of Voltaire.)
Abstract Expressionism & Pop Art
Abstract Expressionism (1940’s-50’s) was a movement that was centered in New York. These artists abandoned representation completely and focused on the act of painting. They used the Surrealist ideas of psychology (free thought). This created the “gesture”, which is the painter’s mark in the ritual act of painting or Tachism. They worked with very large canvases to mimic the scale of the mind. This leads to other psychological interpretations such as Jung’s archetypes. The major artists of this movement were Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning.
Pollock – She Wolf
Pollock – Lavender Mist
Pollock – Autumn Rhythm
de Kooning – Woman 1
A minor offshoot of Abstract Expressionism was Colorfield painting (1950’s) which focused on the emotional impact of large fields of color. Mark Rothko was a major practitioner of this movement.
Pop Art (1960’s)
One of the major goals of Pop Art was to reproduce images from popular mass culture. There are 3 major distinguishing characteristics of Pop Art:
figurative & realist
rooted in urban environments in NY & London
deals with subject matter in special way – simply a motif, excuse for painting & shown literally but yet abstract
Major artists of the movement were Robert Rauschenberg, Roy Lichtenstein, Jasper Johns, and Andy Warhol.
Lichtenstain – Hot Shot
Lichtenstein – Whaam!
Johns – Target with Four Faces
Johns – Three Flags
Johns – Painted Bronze
Warhol – Lavender Disaster
Warhol – Tomato Soup Can
Warhol – Marilyn 2
Postmodern Art (1970’s – ?)
Postmodernism was an explosion of art from minimalism. Here are just a few characteristics of Postmodern Art:
everything is art – graffiti
borrow from past & are challenged by putting old information into new contexts
eclectic in media – installations
pop culture
no universal communication
identify differences
no high & low art – crafts are just as important as painting
The hard part about Postmodernism is that we are still in the middle of it. It will take a few years until we are able to look back and see what we were actually doing.
Some examples
Graffiti – Mersea Springwallpaint
Keith Haring – Smurf
Keith Haring – Corinthian Column
H.R. Giger – Li L
H.R. Giger – 1
H.R. Giger – Biomechanoid 2002
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