SOLUTION: Tattoos The Cross-Cultural History of Tattooing The human body has been used

Tattoos

The Cross-Cultural History of Tattooing

The human body has been used as a “canvas” not only for a long period in history, but also across the world and in many different cultures. The cross-cultural history of tattooing shows commonality in human beings rather than differences.

Standish, C (artist). [Detail of the abdominal tattoos visible on a Dynasty XI mummy of Amunet] Retrieved from Tassie, G.J., 2003. Identifying the Practice of Tattooing in Ancient Egypt and Nubia. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology, 14, p. 90. DOI: http://doi.org/10.5334/pia.200

Detailed sketch of the abdominal tattoos visible on a Dynasty XI mummy of Amunet

Tattooed mummies—including Ötzi, who will be discussed in this lesson—have been found in Egypt as well as other parts of the world. In ancient Egyptian carvings, depictions of Amunet, a priestess of the goddess Hathor, feature distinct tattoos on her arms and thighs; namely, the prominent pattern below her navel is an indication of her relationship to fertility. During the Roman Empire, tattoos were used to identify criminals and slaves. Mummies of Peruvian Incas also show remarkable development in the design of tattoos, as do the Pazyryk peoples of southern Russia near the border of China. A little closer to home, the Iroquois of Ontario had tattoos that reflected their social status. While the specific meaning of the wide-ranging practice of tattooing cannot always be recovered from preserved bodies, some patterns are clearly tribal and related to group identity. For instance, Polynesian tattooing practices will be discussed in detail later in this lesson.

Across cultural and historical lines, the most widely-used images are animals. Explanations for this prevalence include concepts of magic and totem—in other words, the tattooed person was considered to be related to the individual spirit of the animal depicted by the tattoo. Whether or not magic plays a role in the decision-making, animals are still popular choices for tattoos today.

Ötzi

The history of tattooing images on the human body extends to the Paleolithic age (38,000 BCE)—the same period as the first cave paintings, and therefore another indication of the human interest in the creation and appreciation of images. On the human body, ornamentation served as symbols with specific meanings. Archeological evidence has uncovered many of the instruments used in tattooing; these include bone needles and other sharp instruments, along with the ochre typically used as pigment.

In October 1991, the frozen body of a five thousand year-old man, dubbed Ötzi, was found on a high mountain pass between the Italian and Austrian Alps. His body had been well-preserved and covered in ice and snow until global warming melted his icy grave and exposed his body. He was probably a hunter and while pursuing his prey got caught in a severe storm that killed him. Some believed he may have been murdered. Among the finds on or near his body (clothes, bow and arrow, anaxe, and flint for making fire) was also an unexpected discovery: Ötzi’s body was covered with many tattoos. They are not pictorial; as such. Rather, all the markings are made up of lines.

There have been many theories put forward to explain these tattoos. The lines and marks may have been a form of acupuncture; if so, whatever people or tribe he belonged to had at least a rudimentary knowledge of “pressure points” in the human body and how pins could contribute to the healing and well-being of someone suffering from a physical ailment. The practice of acupuncture was not uncommon: the Berber people of North Africa used tattooing to treat rheumatism. The organic material used in the markings on Ötzi’s body may have been medicinal; introducing these organic materials from well-known plants could have had a salutary effect when introduced sub-topically. They may have been used as preventative cures. One recent finding based on a chemical analysis of his skin shows that he had what are called soot tattoos made from the particles collected from the walls of a fireplace. Whatever may have been the reason for the tattoos remains speculative. Without a doubt, however, Ötzi remains the oldest example of a tattooed man ever found.

Tattoos

Polynesia

Gottfried Lindauer [Public domain]

In the nineteenth century, anthropologists began to speculate on the meanings of tattoos in Polynesia—a group of islands scattered across the South Pacific, extending north and south from Hawaii to New Zealand, and west and east from Fiji to Rapa Nui. Despite the research by anthropologists, however, the lack of written documentation by the Polynesians themselves makes it difficult to trace the meaning of the many designs and their association to the myths, traditions, and religions of these people.

Polynesian tattooing has been recognized to be the most sophisticated and elaborate in the ancient world. It evolved over thousands of years and included many kinds of geometrical designs that covered almost the whole of the human body. The natural conditions of the South Pacific made the necessities of life easily obtainable and therefore allowed the islanders to enjoy leisure time. Everything they made—tools, canoes, cups and bowls—was decorated with intricate designs. Their pottery depicted their extensive travels and migrations across the ocean. The designs of pottery were then transferred to the human body. Designs included geometrical patterns as well as motifs resembling masks and sea creatures.

In Tonga and Samoa, in particular, tattooing developed into a highly skillful art form that carried with it important cultural and social significance. Tattoos expressed the life force or spiritual power of the individual. Warriors, for example, were tattooed with specific geometrical patterns, including solid bands of black—which have today become popular outside of Polynesia as well. These bands are often referred to as tribal patterns. The tattoo artists, specially trained priests who had to undergo special rites of purification, followed strict rules and regulations when tattooing certain individuals. Young people were tattooed as a rite of initiation, and the ritual was attended by family, relatives, and friends. Women were tattooed with symbols indicating a particular social skill—weaving, for example—that made them attractive to a possible husband.

Did You Know?

The recent Disney film Moana (2016) features the god Maui as a heavily-tattooed figure. Maui’s tattoos are magical, engaging with him and self-modifying to commemorate events of significance. The film also depicts a Polynesian man being tattooed as a rite of passage. Obviously, this film is a fantastical cartoon, but it does reflect some very true beliefs of the various Polynesian cultures. The video clip below provides an opportunity to view the importance of tattoos to the character of Maui. Does this depiction accurately reflect your understanding of how tattoos are viewed by South Pacific cultures? Do you see any connection to the concept of tribalism?

Please pause the text to speech reader to watch a video entitled “Dwayne Johnson – You’re Welcome (From “Moana”)

Most of the descriptions of these practices come from European ship logs, beginning with Captain Cook in the early seventeenth century. Naturalists aboard these ships made the first illustrations of these designs. Before Cook’s voyages, tattooing was unknown in Europe. However, sailors on these voyages were the first to return with tattoos; they were reminders of their travels and experiences. Sailors in the British navy soon learned the technique as well and brought it first back to England and then to other European port cities where they opened tattoo parlours. Tattooing in the West soon became popular among sailors. They would not be the only group to engage in the practice.

Tattoos

Sub-groups: Circus Performers

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. (c1907). Mrs. M. Stevens Wagner, half-length portrait, facing slightly right, arms and chest covered with tattoos [photo], Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002724032/

Circus performer Maud Wagner

For a roughly 70-year period between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the popularity of circuses included the exhibition of people with much of their bodies tattooed. Many tattoo artists travelled with circuses and their work was in much demand. Much of the early history of tattooing has come down to us from photographs and posters used to advertise circus performances. The showman Phineas B. Barnum (of Barnum & Bailey circus fame) was the first to present individuals deemed strange and exotic and who were considered “deviant” from nature. These included Siamese twins, bearded women, albinos and James F. O’Connell, the first man to be exhibited in public due to his extensive tattoos. He entertained his audiences by recounting the tales of his exploits and the time spent with island natives. Although no photographs of his tattoos survive, Gilbert (2000) mentions one engraving that suggests he was decorated with tattoos of geometrical designs typical of South Pacific images. Other tattooed individuals, many of them women, complemented their unique appearances with skills such as juggling and sword-swallowing.

With the joining of the East and West coasts of the United States by rail, circuses expanded and reached the high point of popularity. Tattoo artists were widely employed and many of their subjects were exhibited; circuses were part of their advertisement. As Gilbert (2000) notes, perhaps the most famous tattoo artist at the time was a Greek by the name of Constantine, who was reputed to have the most elaborate tattoos ever seen. The invention of the tattooing machine made employment opportunities for artists even more attractive. Typical designs were largely patriotic and religious, with images of the American flag, the Statue of Liberty, the Crucifix, and other images of Christ being the most popular choices. Messages also became more popular, and these began to express an individual’s ideas, life, and experiences. What had once been a ritual of initiation and group identity had been transformed into a form of self-expression. Getting a tattoo was no longer seen as related to cultural patterns or membership in what was socially considered a deviant or sub-group; it became a form of self-expression and represented something essential about the individual.

Tattoos

A Popular Phenomenon

Techniques of tattooing may have changed, as with the first patent of the electronic tattooing machine in 1891 by Samuel O’Reilly, but its popularity has never been more noticeable. Although tattooing was once associated with outcasts and marginalized sub-groups such as convicts, gang members, and bikers, the practice has now become so popular that it is no longer considered extreme. In contemporary Western culture, each individual (some, no doubt, in our class) may decide to have parts of his or her body tattooed for personal reasons and with meanings unique to them. Tattooing has become so popular in part because it allows someone to express themselves, permanently, with an idea, an experience, or a memory. Symbols and messages are used as a form of self-expression and to convey highly personal meanings. These meanings are as innumerable as they are varied.

The recent popularity of tattoos, at least in Western societies, is unprecedented and some have called it the tattoo Renaissance. Due to his interest in the history of tattooing in Japan, Don Ed Hardy (now considered the first modern tattoo artist) travelled there in 1973. Upon his return to the United States, he opened a parlour in San Francisco and began tattooing with one important idea in mind: all of his clients would choose a design that would only be used once. Tattoos had to be unique and an expression of the individual. A tattoo convention in Houston in 1976 was a momentous event because it brought together tattoo artists from many different places and allowed them to share personal visions of the future of their art-form. It is safe to say that in the late 1970’s there were very few people who had tattoos unless they were part of sub-groups: the Japanese mob known as the yakuza, sailors, convicts, and bikers.

Kan Phongjaroenwit (photographer). (2016). Street Photography Tokyo: Asakusa Sanja Matauri [photo], Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/kan4k4/27422630442/

Today at least a few people in every class have at least one tattoo—and usually more than one. The question that should be raised at the end of this short history and culture of tattooing is: what accounts for the popularity of tattooing today? Why has tattooing become so popular, most especially in the last twenty years or so? We can ask ourselves this question and consider it from two different perspectives. Some of us do not have tattoos. Some of us do. What do tattoos mean for each one of us individually? This week, we will consider these meanings.

Tattoos

Summary

The long history of tattooing has allowed us to see some of its earlies origins in antiquity (in, for example, Egypt), as well as in the recently-discovered body of a Bronze Age man in the Alps. We have examined the extensive culture of tattooing in the South Pacific islands of Polynesia. There have also been numerous sub-groups who view tattoos as essential in their identity. The popularity of the circus in nineteenth-century America made it possible for tattoo artists, as well as individuals sometimes referred to as “freaks,” to make a handsome living from their art form. Finally, we have traced the popularity of the phenomenon in present day. Whether or not you have a tattoo, take the time to reflect on the reasons for their popularity.

Comprehension Check

Cross-cultural: common to many cultures

Soot tattoos: tattoos made from soot from a hearth or fire

Tribal: signifying group ties

Sub-group: a marginalize group that is distinct from mainstream society

Self-expression: one major motivation of the contemporary popularity of tattoos

Tattoo Renaissance: the recent wave of popularity of tattoos

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