Week 3: Training Needs Assessment and Learning Theory
Introduction
Welcome to Week 3: Training Needs Assessment and Learning Theory. This week you will read the following topics:
Topic 6: Needs Assessment
Topic 7: Learning Theory and Training Program Design
This week’s readings will help you conduct a needs analysis and create a training program. Understanding the needs of an organization is the first step in understanding the type of training an organization needs. Understanding learning theory will help you design a program to meet those needs.
Introduction
As noted in Topic 1, the basic training model follows the five steps in the ADDIE framework: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. This topic deals with the first step in that model, analysis. Sometimes referred to as needs assessment, this step in the model is designed to ensure that any training program is meeting a real need in the organization. It is all too common that training is conducted without a thorough needs analysis, and such training frequently wastes time and money (some research suggests that only 27 percent of organizations with greater than 1,000 employees utilize needs analysis prior to implementation of training programs1).
6.1Needs Analysis: Who and How?
This video can be viewed online.
Needs Assessment (01:25)
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Learning Objectives
Describe steps to create an effective training program.
Outline the different levels of needs assessment.
The term needs analysis is used here because it implies a potentially broader look at organizational needs than the term needs assessment. There are many causes of performance deficiencies in organizations and many potential solutions to these problems beyond training and development. In Topic 1 we provided several examples of situations where training was done—or was almost done—when some other intervention was a much better approach. Throughout this topic, and in subsequent topics as well, we will emphasize that when the A in the ADDIE model is done, it should mean an analysis of performance deficiencies, the remedies for which include many options, with only one being training and development.
Reasons that needs analysis may not be conducted include the following:
Lack of management support for the needs assessment process.
Assessment consumes time and resources.
Findings are difficult to summarize into objective data.
Managers may prefer action over analysis.
Training fads and demands from senior management sometimes dominate.
There is a lack of skills/knowledge in the needs assessment process.
This video can be viewed online.
Steps to Creating Training – Needs Assessment (00:32)
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It is also all too common that while there may be a clear performance problem in an organization, those performance problems may not not amenable to training solutions. For example, if employees have the requisite skills and knowledge to accomplish their work, but management fails to make performance expectations clear through goal setting or some other means, there may be performance deficiencies that cannot be corrected through training. Similarly, if expectations are clear and skills are adequate but motivation is lacking because of perverse incentives in the organization or a negative or hostile working climate is present, training programs will not solve performance problems. Finally, if skills are adequate, expectations are clear, and motivation is present, there still may be performance problems if the design of work systems is inadequate. So, if the plant layout on the factory floor is poorly designed, appropriate computer software is not available to the accounting department, or sufficient travel budgets are not available to the sales staff, even motivated and skilled workers may have difficulties performing up to expectations. The point here is that before investing in training programs, organizations need to do a thorough needs assessment to determine what the nature of any performance deficiencies might be and whether or not such performance deficiencies can be rectified through the acquisition of new skills and/or knowledge.
Of course, it is also true that some training programs are designed more to address future concerns than current performance deficiencies. That is, some training programs are developmental in the sense that participants are being prepared for the future rather than compensating for current deficiencies in performance. Nonetheless, even these developmental training programs require a thorough needs analysis. Organizations must be clear about how the vision for the future translates to needs for new and different skill sets, and whether training is the best way to build these skill sets (compared, for instance, to hiring new employees who already possess these skills).
A needs analysis can help articulate and clarify several areas, such as the following:
The organization’s goals and its effectiveness in reaching these goals
Discrepancies (sometimes called gaps) between current performance and desired future performance, both organizationally and individually
The types of programs—training or otherwise (e.g., selection, work redesign, goal setting)—needed to address these discrepancies
The target audience for training programs
The content of training programs based on fact rather than guestimate or intuition
The types of training methodologies that may be most effective
The ways to best facilitate transfer of training
The baseline information against which to evaluate program effectiveness at a later stage in the training process
The goal of a needs analysis is to determine whether a training need exists, where in the organization this need exists, and exactly what the nature of the training need is. As such, it is appropriate to include a wide array of organizational actors in the conduct of the needs assessment. Upper level managers can appropriately provide input on the vision of the organization and how this relates to future needs for talent. They can also assess current organizational effectiveness in broad terms. Middle level managers can advise on the resources available for training, the nature of specific performance problems they see in their assigned areas of responsibility, and the categories of employees they see as targets for potential training programs. Training managers and instructional designers need to assess if potential training programs are aligned with business strategy, but will be particularly focused on how the needs analysis will assist them in the design, development, and conduct of the actual program.
Another group of employees who may be involved in the needs analysis are subject matter experts, or SMEs. These would be employees at any level in the organization who are expert on the nature of the tasks that need to be performed more effectively (or performed in the future); the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAOs) necessary to perform these tasks; the equipment necessary (e.g., milling machines, computers) in the conduct of the task; and/or the working conditions under which a given task is performed. Job incumbents can clearly be considered SMEs, and it is important in a needs analysis to get a representative sample of job incumbents involved in the process. There is evidence that the inclusion of SMEs in the needs analysis process provides a richer understanding of the scope and nature of the job, and thus enhances the benefits of subsequent training. Besides providing very useful information about the job itself, being involved in the needs analysis makes it more likely that job incumbents will be motivated to participate in any subsequent training program that might be designed.
There are several methods that might be used in needs assessment, either alone or in combination with one another. The choice of method is contingent on factors such as whether or not a job is new, how geographically dispersed present job incumbents might be, whether skilled observers or facilitators are available, the degree of formalization of current job standards, the time available, and so forth. Methods of needs analysis include several options.
Observation of job incumbents doing the work and of the work setting and conditions
Interviews of job incumbents, supervisors, internal and external customers, etc.
Questionnaires and surveys directed to job incumbents, supervisors, customers, etc.
Focus groups involving key players
Documentation, such as job descriptions, performance standards, technical manuals, and performance records
Online technology1
The latter category of performance monitoring is growing in use. In call centers, for example, employee performance is tracked via computer so that supervisors know, for example, the number of calls lasting over five minutes or the number of times an employee receives a callback with a problem from the same customer. Patterns of performance deficiencies can then be summarized and used as input into a training needs analysis.
A fuller articulation of needs analysis methods along with the relative advantages and disadvantages of each is provided in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2.
Table 6.1
Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs Assessment Methods
Method
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
Surveys/Questionnaires
May be in the form of surveys or polls of a random or stratified sample or an entire population
Can use a variety of question formats: open ended, projective, forced-choice, priority-ranking
Can reach a large number of people in a short time
Inexpensive
Give opportunity of response without fear of retaliation
Yield data that is easily summarized and reported
Make little provision for free response
Require substantial time for development of an effective survey or questionnaire
Do not effectively get at causes of problems or possible solutions
Interviews
Can be formal or casual, structured or unstructured
May be used with a representative sample or whole group
Can be done in person, by phone, at the work site, or away from it
Uncover attitudes, causes of problems, possible solutions
Gather feedback; yield of data is rich
Allow for spontaneous feedback
Are usually time-consuming
Can be difficult to analyze and quantify results
Need a skillful interviewer who can generate data without making interviewee self-conscious or suspicious
Performance Appraisals
May be conducted informally or systematically
Conducted by manager; appraisal developed by HR
Should be conducted on a regular basis and seperately from merit discussions
Indicate strenghts and weaknesses in skills and identify training and development needs
Can also point out candidates for merit raises or promotions
Can be costly to develop, implement, and process results
May enable managers to manipulate ratings to justify a pay raise
May invalidate appraisal because of supervisor bias
May be prohibited for union employees
Observations
Can be technical, functional, or behavioral
Can yield qualitative/quantitative feedback
May be unstructured
Minimize interruption of routine work flow or group activity
Generate real-life data
Require a highly skilled observer with process and content knowledge
May cause spied on feelings
Table 6.2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs Assessment Methods Continued
Method
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
Tests
Can be functionally oriented to test board, staff, or committee members’ understanding
Can be administered in monitored setting or at home.
Can determine deficiencies in knowledge, skills, or attitudes
Easily quantifiable and comparable
Must be constructed for audience, and validity can be questionable
Don’t indicate if measured knowledge and skills are being used on the job
Assessment Centers
For management development
Require participants to complete exercises to determine strengths/areas for development
Assess potential by having people work in simulated management situations
Can provide early identification of people with advancement potential
More accurate than intuition
Reduce bias and increase objectivity in selection process
Selecting people to be included in high-potential process is difficult
Time-consuming and costly to administer.
May be used to diagnose developmental needs rather than high potential
Focus Groups/Group Discussions
Can be formal or informal
Widely used method
Can be focused on a specific problem, goal, task, or theme
Interaction between viewpoints
Enhance buy-in; consensus
Group becomes better analyzers and problem solvers
Are time-consuming for both consultants and group members
Can produce data that is difficult to quantify
Document Reviews
Organizational charts, planning documents, policy manuals, audits, and budget reports
Include employee records (grievances, etc.)
Include meeting minutes, program reports, memos
Provide clues to trouble spots
Provide objective evidence of results
Easily collected/compiled
Often do not indicate causes of problems or solutions
Reflect past rather than current situation
Must be interpreted by skilled data analysts
Advisory Committees
Secure information from people who know the training needs of particular group
Supply data gathered from consultants by using techniques such as interviews
Simple, inexpensive
Input of those with personal views of group’s needs
Strengthen communication
Carry biased organizational perspective
May not represent complete picture because information is from group that is not representative of the target audience.
This video can be viewed online.
Evaluation of Successful Training (00:49)
This download can be found online.
No one method of needs analysis is superior to another, and in most cases multiple methods are used. It is important to recognize that the broader the scope of the needs analysis the more valid it is likely to be and the more commitment there is likely to be for any future training program. The author has been involved in several training programs wherein management decided what the program needed to be without consulting employees. In most cases, motivation to participate in these programs was low, and the ultimate transfer of new learning back to the job was modest. In this regard, questionnaires filled out by all relevant employees followed up with focus groups of a random sample of employees may help overcome this resistance to training.
One last version of needs analysis deserves mention. This is called benchmarking. Benchmarking involves identifying best practice organizations, sending a team to observe what their processes and procedures are (say, for reducing the time it takes to report quarterly earnings numbers to shareholders), and then identifying training opportunities back home that would assist the organization in improving their processes and remaining competitive or world class. This type of comparison with other organizations is particularly useful for firms that tend to fall victim to the not-invented-here syndrome and believe that their own home grown internal systems and practices are superior to others.
6.2Levels of Needs Analysis
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Identifying Job Competencies (00:36)
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There are three levels upon which needs analysis is conducted. The first is the organizational level. Here the primary purpose is to look at vision and future direction and determine the workforce needs of the future. This level of analysis also provides a broad look across the organization to identify where training might be needed based on high turnover and absenteeism or low performance and quality.
The second area of needs analysis occurs at the task level. Here the skills and knowledge necessary to do particular tasks are examined, looking for current or potential gaps when compared to workforce capabilities. At this level, analysts are concerned with what needs to be taught in a training program and how certain skills and knowledge translate into task performance. For instance, if an organization is computerizing certain processes that were once done using paper-based forms—say, filling out purchase orders—this may suggest certain types of training that need to be completed by those who purchase supplies from vendors.
The third area of needs analysis occurs at the individual level. Here the focus is on individual employees and how well they perform their jobs. Clearly, the results of annual performance reviews are useful in this level of analysis. The question being addressed is not where the training needs to occur, nor what needs to be trained, but rather who, specifically, needs training. More detail is provided below on each of these three levels of needs analysis.
6.3Organization Analysis
As a first step, an analysis of the organization’s objectives should be conducted in order to determine its short- and long-run goals and needs. It is at this step that the anticipated future needs of the firm are identified based on vision, anticipated strategy, and the organization’s product-market niche. These goals can then be translated into the performance and skill levels of human resources required to meet them and compared against an audit of existing HR capabilities. In short, organization analysis addresses the following issues:
How the organization relates to its external environment and what this environment suggests in terms of future training needs
How well the organization and its departments are meeting present targets and goals
What the short- and long-range developmental needs of employees are
What factors in the internal and external environment of the organization are likely to cause problems and to what extent can these problems be dealt with through training and development programs1
What resources the organization has to devote to training and what the current internal climate relative to perceived benefits and costs of training is
Organization analysis implies an investigation of system-wide components of an organization that may affect the design, conduct, and effectiveness of training beyond those considerations that apply at the task and individual level. For instance, if an organization has no slack resources to devote to serious training programs or the internal climate is hostile to the investment in training it will be difficult to develop effective programs that encourage transfer of newly learned skills and knowledge. One of the most frequent comments the author has experienced when conducting training programs with first-level supervisors is this statement: This training has been great, but the folks that need it the most are my upper-level managers. A thorough needs analysis starting with organization analysis would help determine if this is actually true (if there are indeed performance and skills deficiencies among upper management) or whether this comment is simply a reflection of an organizational climate wherein training is not valued.
One of the most important determinants of the ultimate effectiveness of a training program is the degree to which the program is connected to—and supportive of—organizational goals and strategy. Employees who do not see this connection are less likely to be motivated to attend training or to take it seriously. Managers who send employees to training are similarly less likely to value training that is not seen as contributing to organizational success. Therefore, during the organizational needs analysis part of the process, it is critical for upper management to be clear about current and projected future goals and strategies.
It is not unusual, for example, for police training programs to focus on critical skill development, such as operating a vehicle at a high rate of speed or safely using a firearm. It is also common to find that police training focuses on knowledge acquisition, such as knowing the difference between a felony and a misdemeanor. However, it is also often the case that upper levels in law enforcement have expectations about how police officers will conduct their daily business in a way so as to treat all citizens equally regardless of race, color, or religion. Obviously, if these types of more implicit objectives are not clearly specified during the needs analysis, they will not likely be considered in the design and development of the training program and will receive either cursory or no coverage in training implementation and evaluation.
When analyzing the climate of an organization it is important to investigate the degree to which management, employees, and the peers of potential trainees support training investments. A number of studies have found that support of others in an organizational setting is predictive of training success. For instance, in a study of state government managers in Tennessee, it was found that social support from supervisors, subordinates and peers—along with the overall reputation of training and the level of organizational commitment—were all predictive of the degree of pre-training motivation and post-training transfer of learning.2 If peers’ and managers’ attitudes and behaviors are not supportive of training in general, or of a specific training program in particular, employees are not likely to take their participation in such programs seriously in order to try to learn something new. If there is no learning, there is no transfer. And if there is no transfer, there is no impact for the training program on organizational effectiveness.
Finally, in terms of organization analysis, it is critical to identify what resources are available for the design, development, and execution of training. Some organizations, such as General Electric and Motorola, invest significantly in training and development. Others do not. The total amount of money budgeted to training in the US is typically estimated to be around $60 billion. One way to determine if a single company’s training budget is adequate is to benchmark it against other firms. For instance, one survey showed that the average company spent just over a $1,000 per year per employee on training. The same survey showed that employees spent 31 hours per year in training courses. Companies that have been benchmarked as best practice firms typically spent twice this much time and money on training.3
6.4Task Analysis
Just as an organization analysis is necessary to determine organizational goals, strategies, and philosophies that bear on the design of training, so too is a detailed analysis of the specific task to be trained necessary to determine learning goals that are related to performance on these tasks. Therefore, a task analysis is conducted to determine the tasks required to meet major organizational goals presently and in the future and to determine important dimensions of these tasks. The determination of major tasks then leads to the development of a list of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) deemed necessary for successful job completion. These KSAOs, in turn, can be translated quite directly into learning objectives for a training program. For example, if a task analysis determines that an important requirement of the job of a first-level supervisor is to be able to effectively handle worker complaints and grievances, this skill requirement may become the goal of a training program designed to improve the conflict management capabilities of a group of these supervisors.
A task analysis results in a detailed statement of the conditions under which a task is performed, as well as the duties, responsibilities, and activities associated with the task. It is a task or job description, not a description of the worker. The preliminary list of tasks associated with a given job might be developed by talking with those who have done the work, their supervisors, or through direct observation of someone doing the job. For instance, sample task statements—all beginning with action verbs—for police sergeants (first-level supervisors) might be as follows:
Counsel police officers regarding their future in the organization
Conduct performance reviews of officers who directly report to them
Adjust work schedules to meet emergencies
Brief police officers on recent court rulings that affect their work
Inspect police vehicles to determine that they are properly serviced and maintained.1
Once the preliminary list of tasks is developed, the analyst should seek validation of the list by checking with other subject matter experts (SMEs) such as upper-level managers, retirees who once held the job, or other job incumbents besides those spoken to in the initial investigation. The next step is to determine the importance, frequency, and difficulty of each task. This could be accomplished by developing a questionnaire for job incumbents and SMEs that has the list of tasks identified and asks respondents to rate each task in terms of its importance, frequency, and difficulty on a five-point scale. Tasks that are important, frequently performed, and difficult to learn or perform are the ones that should be targeted for training. Those of intermediate importance, frequency, and/or difficulty may or may not be included in a training program depending on the situation.
After the work itself is analyzed and it is clear what the key tasks are, a list of the KSAOs necessary to accomplish the tasks needs to be developed. Again, interviews with job incumbents, supervisors, and other SMEs is recommended, as are questionnaires, in case it is not easy to conduct such interviews. This step in the process is a bit like hypothesis development in scientific inquiry. The KSAOs necessary to successfully perform a task may not be directly observable. Rather, one must infer what they are. Is it essential, for instance, for an accountant to have knowledge of FASB standards to conduct an audit? Must a basketball player possess superior hand-eye coordination ability to be successful? Does a police officer need to be skillful in negotiations to successfully deal with a domestic dispute? Are other characteristics, such as a genuine concern for people, important for an HR professional when investigating a sexual harassment complaint? All of these are potentially important KSAOs, but since they are not directly observable, we must see them as hypotheses that deserve investigation.
One way that organizations have addressed this difficulty is to identify the very best performers on a job (or task) and then ask what KSAOs they possess. The individuals themselves can be questioned and observed, and their peers, customers, and supervisors can also be interviewed. The places where the self- and other-assessed lists of critical KSAOs overlap are likely to represent potentially valid predictors of performance.
6.5Person Analysis
The final step in needs analysis is to determine which individual employees need training and exactly what kind of training each one needs. At this point the needs analysis has determined which organizational goals, strategies, and philosophies are most important to the job in question, the organizational support for training, and the resources available. The task analysis has determined which tasks are important, frequent, and difficult as well as the KSAOs necessary to accomplish these tasks. In the final step—person analysis—the focus is on how well a given individual demonstrates the KSAOs required for job performance. Here, the current performance levels of workers must be measured by using some type of performance appraisal technique in order to pinpoint any variation from standards and to identify precise areas of performance deficiency. Once these performance appraisals are made, any deficiencies uncovered can be used as the rationale for designing specific training programs to overcome the deficiencies. Clearly, work samples, simulations, and assessment centers might be used for person analysis in addition to performance appraisal. Further, since self- and supervisor-training needs analysis ratings tend to differ widely, it is also useful to gather self-ratings regarding deficiencies that might be addressed by training.
Whereas task analysis focuses on the training needs of a group of workers holding similar jobs, person analysis targets individual workers. To use an example from above, some supervisors may already be competent at handling conflicts with employees and some may not. The person analysis attempts to identify those in the latter category as obvious candidates for training in this skill area.
In addition to determining the KSAOs that need development in particular employees, the person analysis should also assess certain characteristics of the person that will be useful in the design of subsequent training. For instance, it is important in training design to understand incoming trainees’ level of cognitive capability, emotional intelligence, basic literacy, preferred learning styles, level of self-esteem and self-efficacy, career development goals and aspirations, desire for performance feedback, and other personal traits and characteristics. Many of these characteristics are discussed in a later topic dealing with learning theory and training program design. However, it is in the person analysis section of the needs assessment that such key characteristics are first discovered and become input into the training design process.
6.6Other Considerations In Needs Analysis
There is increasing evidence that needs analysis is an important step in the training process. A recent study of smaller New Zealand firms in the transportation industry found that the comprehensiveness of training needs analysis was significantly related to perceived organizational performance while the actual amount of training offered did not. In this study, comprehensiveness was assessed by asking to what extent the organization did each of the following:
Carefully assess the degree to which the problem might be somewhere else, such as the work environment, the tools, the reward system, etc.
Review the employee job description to see if the training fit
Make sure the training was consciously linked to the company’s strategic plan
Decide on the desired competency level expected of each employee after the training
Determine the knowledge, skills, and attitudes an employee must have to perform the job successfully
Assess the current skill and competency level of employees prior to sending them to training1
One way to get a feel for the training needs that are perceived to exist in organizations is to see which types of training programs are most prevalent in practice. For example, in the area of management development, a survey of 485 human resource executives identified five areas most critical for training efforts: communication skills, customer service skills, building and facilitating teams, performance management/appraisal, and developing subordinates.2 For all types of training, the 20 areas most often represented in training and development expenditures for organizations are listed in Table 6.3 below.3
Table 6.3
Area of Training
Percent Providing
New employee orientation
80.7
Performance appraisals
66.2
Word processing
63.5
Time management
63.5
Leadership
62.0
New equipment operation
60.9
Hiring/selection
59.6
Product knowledge
56.9
Stress management
54.8
Train-the-trainer
52.6
Listening skills
52.4
Team building
51.2
Safety
51.0
Motivation
48.7
Problem solving
48.0
Delegation skills
46.8
Public speaking/presentation
45.3
Interpersonal skills
45.1
Goal setting
44.9
Decision making
43.2
At every step in the needs analysis process, it is important to consider alternatives to training and development programs. For example, if the organization does not have the mix of skills needed for future strategic initiatives, it may also want to consider the possibility of buying some of these skills in the external labor market (i.e., the selection approach). Similarly, if an individual’s performance is substandard, a determination should be made as to whether the nature of the performance problem may be something other than a deficiency in skills or knowledge. Perhaps the problem is one of motivation or lack of incentives. Maybe the problem is that of inequitable compensation, uninteresting job design, faulty tools, and equipment, or an unwieldy and counterproductive union contract. Alternatively, the explanation for poor performance may be as simple as the failure of the individual’s superior to clearly communicate performance expectations and standards. Furthermore, in each case of substandard performance, we need to determine whether current employees can, in fact, improve their performance through training, or if they should be transferred or terminated to make room for those who can benefit from the training.
The final step in a systematic needs analysis is the development of a comprehensive training plan. This plan would identify the jobs and individuals targeted for training, the anticipated time frame, the learning objectives, and other specifics needed to ensure that the training adds value to the organization. A sample training plan for one job is provided below:4
Course Title:
Tire Store Management, Course III
Needs Analysis:
Organization (employment planning, store diagnoses using climate surveys)
Task (existing job description)
Person (Self-report supplemented with recommendations by district manager)
Learning Objectives:
Effectively handle customer complaints in a way that increases the likelihood they will be repeat customers
Address employee concerns in a way that decreases turnover among valued workers
Place radio and newspaper ads that drive top-line sales growth
Length:
5 days (one week)
Trainees:
60 new hires per year, 15 trainees per class
Trainers:
HRD, Inc. and 2 internal trainers
Place:
Corporate Training Center
When:
A new class starts the first week of each month, May through August
Training Methods:
Lecture and discussion, behavior modeling, and OJT
Estimated Costs:
$70,500 to develop, plus $12,000 per class
Measures of Success During Training:
Daily paper and pencil achievements tests; Trainee reactions on last day
After Training:
Performance evaluations and store results, measured at 6 and 12 months
The section on Learning Objectives above is particularly instructive. Note that the three learning goals are stated in behavioral terms and have metrics attached to them. This allows the trainees to clearly understand what they are supposed to be able to do at the end of the training and what outcomes are expected. It also allows trainers and program sponsors to follow-up later to see if the training achieved the goals that were set, and if not, suggest ways to improve the training in subsequent iterations.
6.7Example of Needs Analysis in Practice
The aircraft parts manufacturing business of the Parker-Hannifin Company was interested in increasing productivity and quality, reducing costs, and being more responsive to its major customers. These goals were consistent with the overall corporate-level strategy of increasing shareholder value and improving customer service. To assist in meeting these goals, plant-level cross-functional teams were created to develop appropriate training programs. These teams consisted of human resource professionals, training and development experts, project managers, and some factory workers. Organization analysis identified an increased need to operate effectively in teams organized in a way to help drive implementation of a lean manufacturing philosophy with a focus on just-in-time inventory, continuous improvement efforts, and a clear connection of every position with its internal or external customers. Task analysis showed that the skills and abilities needed to direct a team and/or operate in a team environment would be critical if a lean manufacturing strategy was to be successful. Further, person analysis showed that these team skills were present in some current workers and supervisors, but not in others. Therefore, a common Seven Core Process model for team effectiveness was developed and introduced throughout the organization in order to assure that all employees had a common vocabulary and approach for implementing the critical steps associated with lean manufacturing. But, training specifically tailored to individuals and groups with different patterns of team skill deficiencies was also developed to supplement this overarching common training program.
This example demonstrates a couple things. First, at Parker-Hannifin training was viewed as critical for implementing corporate strategy and accomplishing key goals. For this reason, resources were devoted to an in-depth needs analysis (at the organization, task, and individual levels) and then training was designed to address the results of this analysis. Second, task and person analysis suggested that training needs varied widely across plants, and therefore a combination of common and differentiated training programs was deployed. These more localized programs were designed to be consistent with local norms and expectations. For instance, in some cases, work groups were taken off-site for training for several days at a time. In other cases, shorter 3-hour workshops were developed based on the needs of the target group and the training was conducted in conference rooms on site. In yet other cases, online learning modules were developed and then supplemented with once-a-month informal team discussion groups to keep the focus on improving everyone’s abilities to work in teams.
6.8Conclusion
Unfortunately, many training programs fail to make much of a difference in organizations because trainers are frequently more interested in conducting the program itself than in first assessing the needs of their organizations and the workers. Educators and trainers in organizations, as well as the managers who make the decisions about training, often seem to be seduced by the latest in training techniques, whether it is sensitivity training, programmed instruction, strategic planning, or some other fad. The thinking seems to be that if it is working for company X, then we should be using it here. Yet, the needs of various organizations are frequently quite different. Therefore, it is always advisable to spend the relatively small amount of time and money required to perform a thorough needs assessment before investing the much larger amount of time and money required to do the training itself.
In the next topic, we turn our attention to the design of high-quality training programs. Recall that the definition of training from Topic 1 is organizationally-sponsored learning designed to facilitate goal accomplishment. Therefore, to develop top-notch training programs, one needs first to understand how people learn so that behavior is permanently changed as a result of attending such programs. This is not as easy as it may first appear. Human behavior is rooted in habit and prior experience. People in general, and adults in particular, often require significant reasons to get them to change their behaviors. Thus, motivation to change is an important consideration in the design of effective training programs, as we shall soon see.
Topic 6 Quick Check
This assessment can be taken online.
Introduction
Most training programs, whether oriented at increasing self-awareness, enhancing skills, or contributing to direction and motivation, have at their core the desire to alter the work behavior of the participants in some way. In other words, organizations engage in training in order to facilitate behavior change, whether it is changing poor performance into good performance, transforming resistance to change into acceptance of the inevitability of change, adding certain behaviors (like those associated with effective listening), or perhaps eliminating others (such as unsafe operation of machines and equipment). The key question to ask in the design of a training program is this: What should the trainee be able to do upon completion of the program? This suggests the importance of establishing behavioral objectives for training programs. Such objectives establish benchmarks of performance expectations and as such are quite useful in the determination of the degree of success achieved by the training program.
In this topic, we address the first step in training program design, namely the establishment of learning objectives. As noted in the last topic, this is also the last step in the needs analysis, so the first two stages in the ADDIE model—analysis and design—flow together seamlessly, at least in theory. So, we start this topic with a brief discussion of learning goals. Before we get to the design of training programs, however, we need to cover some important background material related to how people learn. Learning, as we know, is the goal of training and development programs, and it turns out that the study of learning over more than a century has yielded some very useful insights for training and development. After a survey of some of this research, we turn to the implications of this research for the design of training. Then, at the end of the topic, we briefly review the related topic of trainee readiness to learn.
7.1Learning Theory and Training Program Design
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Learning Theory and Training Program Design (01:07)
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Learning Objectives
Describe steps to create an effective training program.
Describe various components of adult learning theories.
Describe the benefits of designing training programs that address learning style preferences, abilities, and diversity in audiences.
Describe principles for designing a training program for adult learners.
Behavioral Learning Objectives for Training
A learning objective for training should clearly state what a participant should be able to do at the end of the program. That is, it should be a behavioral objective. What new behaviors should the participant be able to exhibit? What will they know that they don’t know now, and how will that new knowledge be evidenced in a change in behavior? Or, what new challenge will the participant take on after the training that he or she would be unlikely to accept without the training? A good statement of learning objectives should also include a standard of performance or criteria by which to judge the trainee’s mastery of the subject. A good learning goal generally starts with the word to followed by an action verb. For example, upon completion of a performance appraisal training program, a supervisor should be able to do the following:
Implement the steps of an effective performance review discussion, starting with advance preparation and ending with goal setting and follow-up
Effectively handle situations where the employee has a different view of his or her performance than the supervisor
Complete the paperwork and documentation required by the human resources department in a timely fashion
SMART Learning Objectives
Some have suggested an easy way to remember how to write good goal statements. Trainers should strive to set SMART learning objectives. SMART objectives are specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely. To the extent that behavioral learning objectives contain a standard or criteria against which to measure performance, they should be both specific and measurable. To the extent that such a standard is a stretch, but still reasonable, the goal should be both attainable and realistic. And, to the extent that the learning objective specifies a time frame for performance, it would meet the timely criterion of a SMART goal.
In the end, the establishment of learning objectives helps trainers remain focused on the end result of training: behavior change in pursuit of organizational success. Of course, at higher levels of an organization, the exact changes in behavior desired of trainees may be difficult to pinpoint, as jobs are unstructured and unprogrammed, and thus identification of desired job behaviors is difficult and time-consuming. For example, we may not always be sure exactly what behaviors we would like managers to change as a result of a seminar on interpersonal skills training. However, analysis may produce specific behavioral objectives, even at this level. These might include a reduction of interruptions of subordinates when they are asking questions or giving verbal praise more often. Another objective might be having managers inquire how they can be of assistance to subordinates more frequently.
7.2Training and Learning Theory
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Developing Employees (01:41)
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Because training is essentially organizationally-planned learning, much learning research and theory is relevant to the design of training programs. Learning theory and research have much to offer trainers regarding the following aspects of learning:
The preconditions for learning
The structure of the training environment
The role of the trainer
The influence of the individual characteristics of the trainee on learning
The basic human learning processes
The role of practice in learning
The retention and transfer of learning
Trainers can become familiar with this research as they develop training course designs and incorporate recommendations based on their findings.
Some of the specific learning principles or concepts that come from years of pedagogical research and that are important considerations in training are explained below.
Trainee Motivation and Goal Setting
Trainees who are not motivated and are not interested in changing their behaviors will be unlikely to benefit from any training program. Training that is engaging to the trainee may help provide the stimulus for motivation. It is usually motivational for trainees to know the big picture of the training design and how the training fits with company strategy, future directions, and their own career aspirations. Also, greater participant activity level during training is generally motivational. Lastly, research on goal setting suggests that setting explicit, challenging goals may lead to motivation and commitment to the training, greater effort, and more efficient learning.1
Practice
Practice is simply performing the training tasks after learning in order to improve proficiency. Practice is generally most effective if distributed over a period of time rather than massed at a single time (as many students have learned, cramming for exams may produce high test scores, but it also typically leads to rapid forgetting). Practice should require trainees to make responses to stimuli other than those encountered in training, so as to generalize their learning. Some tasks should be practiced so thoroughly that overlearning occurs. This implies a learner state where the response becomes almost second nature. Such overlearning is important in situations where the response is not called for frequently, but when it is, it must be exhibited under extreme pressure (e.g., administering CPR to a heart attack victim, disassembling and cleaning a weapon while under enemy fire). Overlearning of routine tasks can also facilitate the attention to the more complex portions of any job which has a mix of routine and nonroutine tasks.2
Feedback and Knowledge of Results
To learn, trainees must be aware of the results of their behavior. Feedback from peers, trainers, or from the task itself is the vital link that permits knowledge of results and informs trainees as to whether or not they are on the right track. Feedback may be either positive or negative, but in either case it needs to be communicated in a supportive learning environment. Frequently, feedback from the task itself (watching a basketball shot fall a foot short of the rim, observing a soldered electrical connection fail a vibration test, etc.) is the most powerful form of feedback for learning. Seeing that the results of one’s efforts are inadequate for successful task completion frequently creates within participants a desire to change and thus increases motivation to learn. In certain types of training, viewing oneself on video can also be a very effective means of feedback.
Self-Efficacy
Training should enhance participants’ task-specific self-confidence (i.e., self-efficacy) as well as their expectations that the training will be effective. For example, training should begin with simple tasks that can be mastered easily, then progress to more complex learning as trainees gain confidence.
Reinforcement
In operant learning theory, reinforcement is the change in one’s environment, or the consequence of behavior, that strengthens the probability of the future occurrence of the behavior that produced the reinforcer. It is well proven that behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (the so-called Law of Effect). So, if performing a new task correctly produces verbal praise from a trainer or from fellow trainees, the correct performance may become associated with this (pleasant) outcome and will be more likely to occur again in the future. Among the many rewards offered in organizations that may be reinforcing for trainees are recognition, advancement, praise, positive performance appraisals, prizes, bonuses, and even successful completion of the training itself. Feedback (or knowledge of results), in addition to providing a correcting function in training, is frequently reinforcing for participants.
Shaping Behavior
Behavior shaping refers to the selective reinforcement of successively approximate performance of a target behavior until the target is achieved. If a certain task is to be learned, it can be broken into small component behaviors. As the trainees come closer and closer to the total completion of the task, each of these is reinforced when it is observed until they are finally able to complete the entire task. For example, the managerial task of delegation of authority may be broken into several component tasks (selection of the appropriate subordinate, communicating support, listening actively to subordinate concerns, setting follow-up dates, etc.), and each subtask may be learned individually and then combined into the final desired performance level.
Vicarious Learning and Modeling
It is not necessary to experience rewards and punishments yourself to learn new behaviors. Trainees can learn by observing the experiences of others in the same way that a child learns it is painful to fall off a bicycle by watching someone else fall off. Similarly, many positive behaviors (learning to ski moguls or deal with difficult customers in a constructive manner) are learned by observing the correct behaviors in others and then imitating or modeling those behaviors yourself. Videotapes are well suited to this type of approach to training. Trainees can observe a model perform, critique the performance, and then attempt the behavior themselves. In addition, trainees receive vicarious reinforcement when the model’s behavior is reinforced (e.g., when a videotaped actor, through a series of clearly delineated steps, successfully turns an unhappy customer into a happy one). Modeling is, of course, more appropriate for learning observable psychomotor tasks than for gaining cognitive knowledge.
Retention
Retention of learned material is enhanced if reinforcement during learning is delivered intermittently rather than continuously (the latter case being susceptible to rapid extinction of the newly learned behavior when reinforcement is not forthcoming immediately in the work environment). Also, the more meaningful the material, the more readily it is retained. This is especially true if the material is organized during the training to facilitate retention. For example, music students learn that the lines of the treble staff are the first letters of Every Good Boy Does Fine and the spaces spell the word FACE.
Transfer
The more similar the goals, behaviors, and environment of the training program are to the work setting, the greater the likelihood that the learning will transfer back to the job. Obviously, transfer is achieved most readily if the conditions under which the training occurs are identical to those at the work site, which explains the continuing popularity of on-the-job training (OJT). Transfer is also facilitated by training for understanding of principles; after training, these principles can be applied in a variety of work situations. Further, transfer is aided if what is learned in training is reinforced on the job. For example, trainees who have been taught how to be more assertive and offer suggestions on how to do their jobs better may find it difficult to transfer this learning back to work if they report to bosses who insist on dictating procedures themselves and who are not open to the ideas of subordinates. In such cases, the training has probably been misdirected, and should have started first with the supervisors who are unsupportive. The issue of training transfer is investigated in more depth in the Topic 9.
7.3Learning Styles
One of the most well accepted notions in learning theory is that different people learn in different ways. That is, people have different learning styles. One of the simplest categorizations of learning styles is the difference between visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners. The differences in these learning styles are summarized in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1
Differences in Learning Styles
Visual Learners
Auditory Learners
Kinesthetic Learners
Learn best through seeing
May need to see body language and facial expressions to fully understand the training content
May think in pictures and learn best from visual displays such as diagrams, flip charts, videos, and handouts
May prefer to take detailed notes during a class lecture
Learn best through hearing
Prefer discussions, talking things through, verbal lectures, and listening to others’ opinions as modes of learning
May interpret meaning of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, and/or cadence
May get little meaning from written information until it is heard
May benefit from reading aloud and making tape recordings
Learn best through hands-on experience and are also known as tactile learners
May prefer to actively explore the world around them
May find it hard to sit still for traditional lecture and/or discussion approaches to training
May be easily distracted by opportunities for personal exploration of their environment
Another frequently cited approach to understanding learning style differences is based on a theory of learning as a cycle of alternating inductive and deductive reasoning. The cycle consists of four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation.1 In other words, a learner observes something firsthand, reflects on the meaning of that experience, and hypothesizes some theory-of-the-case that explains the observation through the process of induction. Then, the learner proceeds to actively test this hypothesis (abstraction) by actively experimenting in the real world to see if things work out as expected. Of course, active experimentation leads right back to a concrete experience and the cycle starts all over again. The theorists that developed this learning theory cycle also developed a questionnaire assessment of learning styles, the results of which are outlined in Table 7.2. Learning styles, according to this theory, are based on a combination of learning preferences.
Table 7.2
Differences in Learning Styles
Learning Style Type
Dominant Learning Approaches
Learner Characteristics
Diverger
concrete experience
reflective observation
Is good at:
generating ideas
being imaginative
understanding people
being open-minded
brainstorming
Assimilator
Is good at:
reflective observation
abstract conceptualization
planning and creating models
defining problems
being patient
inductive reasoning
less concerned with people (vs. ideas, concepts)
Converger
Is good at:
abstract conceptualization
active experimentation
solving problems and making decisions
defining problems
deductive reasoning
prefers dealing with technical tasks rather than interpersonal tasks
Accommodator
Is good at:
active experimentation
concrete experience
making decisions
being adaptable and practical
leading and getting things done
being logical
may be seen as impatient
The overarching message here is that people learn differently and, in any given group of trainees, there are bound to be significant differences in peoples’ preferred learning styles. This suggests that effective training programs are flexible in order to accommodate these varieties of styles and preferred approaches. At AmeriCredit, a Fort Worth-based auto finance company, all employees are given a learning styles inventory and then the results are entered into a training database that can be used by program developers. Trainers know before the training starts what the learning style profiles of trainees will be in any given workshop and can therefore make design changes appropriate to those styles. For instance, if most trainees learn best from concrete experience, written materials and lectures will be kept to a minimum and experiential exercises will be emphasized. On the other hand, if many of the trainees feel they learn best through reasoning and thought, then more conceptual material and fewer activities are planned. Though data are not available yet, the company plans in the future to measure the differences in training outcomes from courses designed specifically around learning styles versus those that are not.2
Obviously, many other learning issues are relevant to the design of training programs, including the appropriate use of punishment, the sequencing of task learning segments, verbalization of learning, and others.3 The key point to keep in mind, however, is that training is organizationally sanctioned learning. Thus, what we know about effective learning should be factored into the design of training programs. As a start, training programs for most jobs should be designed to rely on positive reinforcement, allow for practice at proper intervals, break complex tasks into smaller components used as intermediate learning goals, and assess and facilitate trainee interest and motivation. These implications for training design are fleshed out in more detail later in this topic.
7.4Adult Learning Theory
The topics and conclusions in the previous section come from research that educational psychologists have conducted over the years on how children learn. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the development of a body knowledge about how adults learn.1 This learning theory is referred to as andragogy, as contrasted with pedagogy, which is the art and science of teaching children. Drawing on research in cognitive theory, motivation, and stimulus-response conditioning, advocates of the andragogical approach to adult learning maintain that adults learn in a fundamentally different manner than do children,2 implying that training programs must use a very different approach than that taken to educating children. The core assumptions and beliefs in the andragogical approach to learning are discussed below.3
The motivation of adults to learn stems from encountering evolving social role needs and developmental interests that learning will satisfy; therefore, life deficiencies and interests are the proper starting points for organizing adult learning activities.
The adult learners’ orientation to education is life-centered; therefore, life situations, rather than content matter, are the appropriate units for organizing adult learning experiences.
The richest learning resource in adult education is the adult’s accumulated reservoir of experience; therefore, the analysis of life experience must form the core methodology of adult education.
Unlike the dependency of children, adults have formed a self-concept and a psychological need to be self-directing; therefore, rather than just transmitting knowledge and evaluating the learner’s grasp of that knowledge, the role of the teacher is to participate with the learner in a process of mutual inquiry.
In short, five principles for the design of training for adult learners are to assume that they do the following:
Need to know the why for any training they are asked to undertake
Need to be self-directed in their learning
Bring extensive work-related experiences into the training, which needs to be acknowledged
Enter the training with a problem-centered approach to learning and seek immediate application
Learn best through Praxis, a Greek word meaning “action with reflection.” This suggests that the actual number of repetitions may be less important for adult learners than the opportunity to reflect back and analyze the impact of actions taken. Further, adults often benefit from discussing these reflections with others in training.4
The need to know why training is important suggests that in any design trainees should be presented with the big picture first so that they can understand what the overall theory-of-the-case is for why they should care about the learning and to begin to understand how the pieces will fit together in the end. This concept is sometimes referred to as whole learning or Gestalt learning. After the adult learners firmly understand the big picture, then they can begin to be introduced one at a time to the smaller pieces that fit together to make the entire Gestalt.
Like any learner, adults also want to know the WIIFM of any training; what’s in it for me? This is where a solid rationale for the training and a direct connection between the desired learning outcomes and the strategic success of the business are very important. Training that seems disconnected from business or personal career success is likely to receive low marks from an adult audience.
7.5Implications of Learning Theory on the Design of Training Programs
Given all the various theories and the research that has been conducted on how people learn best, what are the conclusions that can be drawn relative to the design of high-impact training programs? While there may be many, we’ve reduced the list to the following critical few.
Trainees Need to Know the Why of the Training
Adults learn best when they can see the big picture (the Gestalt) before being introduced to the details. They need to know how the training connects with the business, its strategic success, and overall goals and mission. They also need to see that something is in it for them (WIIFM). Both of these goals may be met with the articulation of behavioral learning objectives to be obtained from the training and a side-by-side comparison with business goals. The author was present at a training session once where during the first half hour, participants watched a video in which the CEO of one of their major customers suggested that, from his perspective, they needed to do a better job of streamlining their operations and reducing costs. The trainers then went on to point out how the three-day training course they were signed up for was designed to do just this—take non-value added work out of the system in order to reduce bureaucracy and increase customer responsiveness.
Trainees Need Meaningful Training Content
Meaningfulness is related to current and expected future job requirements as well as to life experiences. Training content is also more meaningful when it is presented using the jargon, acronyms, and corporate vocabulary everyone is familiar with (this is a problem for outside trainers and one reason for selecting insiders to conduct training in certain cases). Meaningfulness and training transfer are both enhanced when the environment of the training mirrors the work environment. So, for the example just given above, when a major customer tells employees that they need to break down the bureaucracy and become more responsive to external demands, trainees are likely to see this as very meaningful. Do it or lose an important customer! Some specific approaches that might be considered to convince trainees of the meaningfulness of the content would include the following strategies:1
Telling stories about how prior trainees used the content to improve their work or, even better, having prior trainees come to the session and tell their stories themselves
Having top managers attend the session and explain its importance and the connection with business strategies and goals
Providing access to materials so trainees can easily locate and use them after the training is over
Allowing trainees to choose their practice strategy and how they want training content presented (e.g., visually, verbally, problem-based, or a combination)
Showing how the conditions trainees will face during the training are similar to the conditions they face on the job
Trainees Need Opportunities to Practice
Practice refers to the mental or physical rehearsal of a learned skill or knowledge applications. For practice to be effective, the trainee needs to be actively involved. In some cases, a lot of practice is necessary to produce the condition of overlearning. As discussed above, this state is needed for certain infrequently used behaviors that need to be summoned up under severe pressure. This is why professional golfers spend so much time on the practice range. They need to develop a reliable swing that is overlearned to the extent that it will stand up under the intense pressure of, say, the final round at the Masters Golf Championship. Most theorists agree that distributed practice is better than massed practice (though it does seem to depend on the nature of the task). So, better to hone that golf swing by practicing two hours a day, every day, rather than once a week for ten hours. There is also the question of whole versus part practice. That is, should one practice all parts of the golf game in one day, or just driving one day and the short game the next? It is probably best to use a combination in any one training session. That is, a trainer may focus a given session primarily on just one part of the overall task (say, putting), but then in order to mix it up and provide variety as well as review, spend a few minutes on some of the other tasks already trained (say, chipping), although it does seem to depend on the nature of the task.
Trainees Need Feedback
This principle builds on the practice principle just discussed. Practice without feedback is not particularly helpful to learning and, in fact, can result in learning the wrong concepts and behaviors. The author recalls one experience he had in an outdoor management development course where one of the goals was to teach participants the value of being open to the ideas of others. However, after one particularly catastrophic failure on a group problem solving event, the senior manager involved announced that he had learned that the group’s interests would be best served if everyone would just shut up and let him decide how best to proceed. As mentioned above in an earlier section, the best feedback comes from the task itself because there is no question about the credibility or accuracy of the source of the feedback. But in many types of training the designer will also want to build in ample opportunities for participants to get feedback from both the trainee and the peers in the group. Frequently, training programs will be designed to solicit feedback from the home supervisors in hopes of encouraging the transfer of learned skills and behaviors.
Trainees Learn Through Direct Experience, Observation, and Social Interaction
As mentioned earlier, employees can learn from behavioral role modeling as well as from direct experience. For the model to be effective, the desired behaviors need to be clearly specified in advance, and the model should exhibit characteristics similar to the trainee group (age, experience, and so forth). After observing the model, trainees should have the opportunity to practice. Let’s suppose there is a video of a role model effectively defusing an emotionally charged conflict between two subordinate employees. The trainer will need to set up a simulation that contains the potential for high emotion in order to allow for effective practice. But trainers should not overlook the potential for learning in small group interaction during the training as well. Kurt Lewin, the father of the field of social psychology, demonstrated decades ago that small groups were among the most effective vehicles for facilitating change. Small groups allow trainees an opportunity to share life experiences and problem-solve real issues they are facing in the workplace. Through these small group interactions, trainees build relationships that can often carry over to facilitate effective organizational communication. Following one program in which the author was involved, training participants agreed to have semi-annual reunions to compare how they had applied learning from the training program and to keep the spirit alive.
These are certainly not all of the implications that one could draw from learning theory to the design of effective training programs, but this gives the reader a sampling of how the theory and research can be useful. We turn our attention now to one final important topic related to program design: learner readiness.
7.6Learner Readiness
For training to be effective, trainees must be ready to learn. Readiness implies that they have the basic literacy and background skills necessary to learn the subject matter to be taught. Further, it means that the trainee has a reasonably high level of self-efficacy relative to training (believes he or she is capable of learning the material) and the motivation to learn. If any of these characteristics is missing—skill, self-confidence, or motivation—the trainee is not ready to learn.
Different people possess different levels of ability to learn. Many types of training programs assume that trainees possess the basic skills, such as reading and math proficiency, necessary to learn. Unfortunately, some companies have been surprised to learn that this is not the case. For instance, in the early 1980s, when the competitive environment at Motorola became so intense that the company began to rely on front-line employees to solve problems rather than just turn out product, they were surprised to find that much of the work force was functionally illiterate.1 This led the company to invest significant resources into basic literacy training so that employees could understand and benefit from the subsequent training they were offered in group problem solving and manufacturing process improvement. Note that this problem is not an isolated one. A recent survey showed that almost 40 percent of job applicants at various firms lack the basic reading, writing, and arithmetic skills necessary to do the job for which they were applying.2
In addition to basic skills, trainees must possess self-efficacy, which is defined as the confidence in their own abilities to learn the content of the training program. College students who have done poorly in math classes in the past will know the feeling of helplessness they confront when presented with a math requirement in their chosen program of study. These perceptions may have little or nothing to do with their actual abilities to learn the content, but instead reflect how they see themselves and their own abilities. Instructors and trainers need to be mindful of different strategies for boosting self-confidence if it is lacking. For example, some trainees with low self-efficacy may benefit from some one-on-one time with the trainer so that they might get additional help or see that they are, in fact, capable of mastering the content of the program.
A part of this problem that is an issue for trainers today relates to older workers’ perceptions of their abilities to learn new technology. Many jobs today require advanced technology applications and knowledge of computer hardware and software. Since this field is advancing rapidly, technology changes often and jobs require new skills and knowledge. It is generally believed that older workers are less confident in their abilities to learn new technologies, and at least one recent research study seems to support that view.3 In this case, just over 100 account representatives were provided with a two-day training session on a new software system the company was thinking of adopting. The training consisted of lecture, hands-on use, and interactive usage assisted by the trainer. Over the next year, trainees were then allowed to individually decide whether to adopt the new software or stick with the existing package. Analysis a year later showed a high negative correlation between age and new technology adoption. The authors of the study concluded that older workers may need more effort devoted to confidence building when it comes to adopting new technology or they may need different and more varied approaches to training than younger workers need.
Lastly, trainees must be motivated to learn. Motivation level affects learning through an energizing function. The motivated learner is more active in class and will work harder to assure that learning actually occurs. The motivated learner also takes more responsibility for his or her learning rather than waiting for the trainer to make it happen. The desire to learn is influenced by many factors. For instance, some trainees will immediately see the WIIFM in a training program and be easily engaged and motivated to learn. Others may need more convincing (see the topic section above on how to make training more meaningful). Motivation is frequently influenced by peers, the reputation of the course and trainer, the physical space in which the training takes place, and the degree to which the organization clearly values development efforts on the part of employees. All of these factors, and more, contribute to the potential motivation of trainees, and all can be influenced to some extent by experienced trainers. For example, a recent meta-analysis summarizing 20 years of research showed that pre-training motivation is predicted by factors such as organizational commitment, job involvement, perceptions of the work environment, as well as individual characteristics such as locus of control, conscientiousness, anxiety, age, cognitive ability, and self-efficacy.4 Trainee motivation, in turn, is critical to subsequent learning, as demonstrated in a variety of studies.5
7.7Conclusion
In this topic we have continued the discussion of developing behavioral learning objectives. Such objectives keep both the trainer and trainee focused on the ultimate goal of training, which is behavior change in pursuit of organizational success. These objectives also clearly communicate to potential trainees what they can expect to learn from a program and why they should be motivated to attend.
In this topic we also introduced the issue of learning theory and learning research. The process by which adults learn has been studied for decades, and it is incumbent on anyone who desires to be a trainer to become familiar with these theories. We have argued that both pedagogical research and more recent attempts at andragogical research are very useful in thinking about training program design. They help steer trainers in the direction of building programs that will be well received by adult learners. Lastly, we briefly discussed the key determinants of trainee readiness to learn, and argued that following principles of adult learning theory allows trainers to maximize the motivation potential of their training designs.
In the next topic, we turn our attention to issues of training implementation. These include the specifics of program development and the implementation of a variety of different types of training programs.
Topic 7 Quick Check
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Practice Assignment
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