Week 4: Implementation and Transfer of Organizational Training
Introduction
Welcome to Week 4: Implementation and Transfer of Organizational Training. This week, you will read the following topics:
Topic 8: Implementation Issues in Training
Topic 9: Transfer of Training
This week’s readings will help you understand the different types of training methods and how to facilitate the transfer of training. There are different approaches to training and it is important to choose the option most suited to your trainees. Effective transfer of training results in trainees that effectively and continually apply what they have learned in training.
Introduction
After the human resource manager has performed a thorough needs assessment, developed a blueprint of trainee performance expected at the end of training (behavioral objectives), and considered the various means of maximizing a trainee’s learning, he or she must determine which of several specific training methods to use. The number of choices is large and seems to grow every year. Some newer approaches are well-grounded in the principles of learning theory (e.g., behavior modeling training), while others seem to be more a result of technological developments than of advances in learning theory (e.g., interactive video, computer-based business simulations). In any case, a manager will need to decide the details of the training: where it will be held, what types of materials to use, what approaches to design into the program, who the trainer(s) will be, how to choose who will participate and when, what pre-work will be done before the training and what follow-up will be done afterwards, and so forth.
In this topic, we address these implementation issues, starting with general types of training that might be developed and the varieties of methods that might be utilized. We then dig into some of the details of program design using traditional classroom face-to-face training and compare and contrast this with e-learning and blended learning approaches. We also discuss the pros and cons of on-the-job training, which is a widely used approach. Further, before going live with training, decisions must be made about the type of facility to use, whether to use in-house resources or an external provider, and a myriad of other details.
8.1Types of Training
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Implementation Issues In Training (00:58)
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Learning Objectives
Describe steps to create an effective training program.
Choose appropriate types of training for a given situation.
Apply delivery methods in specific training contexts.
Describe the key competencies needed by trainers.
Identify key factors in selecting a training facility, setting, or delivery platform.
Describe synchronous and asynchronous technologies and tools that impact training and development.
Training can be designed to meet a variety of needs and can be categorized in various ways. Some common program types include the following:
Required or regular training, such as occupational health and safety or sexual harassment prevention
New employee orientation
Basic or remedial skills training
Job or technical skills training, such as soldering or wiring
Sales and customer relations training
Interpersonal skills or team building training
Supervisory and coaching skills training
Quality training, such as total quality management
Developmental or innovative training, such as new technology training
Leadership and/or executive development
Personal development and self-awareness training
Wellness training
Diversity training
In some locations, it is required that supervisors and managers receive training on sexual harassment prevention. Even where it is not required, it is a good idea because it establishes an affirmative defense in the event that a sexual harassment lawsuit is filed. Supervisors are taught what sexual harassment is, how to prevent it, and what to do in case an employee claims that he or she has been a victim of sexual harassment. Training of supervisors on discrimination in general (e.g., The Civil Rights Act of 1964), independent of sexual harassment, is recommended even if it is not required by law. The intent of such training is to minimize the likelihood that a supervisor or manager will violate EEO laws and regulations inadvertently.
8.2Delivery Methods in Training
A variety of factors weigh on the decision of what type of training delivery methods to use in a given situation. These include such things as the nature of the training and the subject matter, the number of trainees and their prior experience and background, the budgetary and time constraints, and the ultimate goals of the program in terms of expected behavioral changes. For example, a large firm with many new employees starting at about the same time may be able to design an orientation program that is at least partly web-based using interactive video conferencing and programmed instruction to lead trainees through the basics of getting started on the job. In comparison, a small firm with only a few new hires each year may have to rely on an HR staff member and the employee’s first supervisor to conduct most of the orientation.
Categories of Training and Development Methods
Training and development methods can be divided roughly into three categories: information presentation, simulation, and on-the-job training.1
Information presentation
Lecture and discussion, including blended learning
Orientation training
Conference and teleconference
Systematic observation
Programmed instruction
Computer-assisted instruction
Interactive video or CD
Web-based instruction
Correspondence courses
Reading lists and independent study
Simulation
Cases and case incidents
Role playing and behavior modeling training
Sensitivity training and T-groups
Outdoor (adventure-based) management training
Business games
Management simulations such as in-baskets
Vestibule training and equipment simulators
On-the-job (OJT)
Coaching from supervisor
Feedback from performance appraisal
Job rotation
Committee assignments or Junior Boards
Apprenticeships
Mentoring
It should be noted that these category assignments are only rough approximations because many of the training techniques have elements in common with those in other categories. For example, vestibule training, sometimes referred to as near-the-job training, is almost identical to on-the-job approaches except that it takes place in a setting that is not identical to the work place. Similarly, many of the simulation approaches, such as behavior modeling training, have a strong information presentation component along with their simulation portion.
It should be obvious that a wide range of training approaches exist. The choice of which one to use will be a function of the learning goals established for the program, the time and budget available for the training, trainer and trainee characteristics and skill levels, and the organization’s general commitment to employee development. Clearly, a sensitivity training or off-site conference approach is inappropriate for a group of unskilled workers being trained for custodial jobs. Here, OJT coaching may be most appropriate. Job rotation, in which some time is spent learning several jobs, may be very useful for young management trainees. Programmed instruction—the precursor to much web-based training today—has been found to be quite effective for learning complex sets of rules or procedures.2
Each of the three general types of training listed above has relative advantages as well as disadvantages. For example, on-the-job methods are usually inexpensive in that they require no additional personnel, space, or equipment. They are also practical and clearly maximize transfer of learning. On the other hand, there is little quality control in OJT and the effectiveness of the training is directly a function of the motivation and coaching skills of the supervisor involved. Off-the-job methods reduce this problem by allowing for standardization of methods and careful selection of trainers, but obviously are more costly to design and implement. (A thorough analysis of costs, however, would also include the costs to the organization of OJT that was ineffective in achieving its objectives.)
8.3Classroom Training
While there are other methods of delivering training, the traditional classroom setting is still the most commonly used approach. Classroom training is usually led by an instructor, trainer, or facilitator. The trainer may be an internal person or someone hired from the outside (see the section below on internal vs. external training). The face-to-face environment in a classroom setting allows for flexibility and the use of several different methods of learning.
Presentation/Lecture
This is the traditional stand-and-deliver mode of training. It is helpful for introducing trainees to new information or new models and frameworks. It is economical in the sense that a large number of trainees can be exposed to information in this way. Unfortunately, presentation by itself does not allow for participation or two-way interaction and does not accommodate differences in learning styles.
In the author’s experience, some very effective training programs begin with a large group of trainees assembled in a lecture hall where a recognized expert on a given topic delivers a short (maybe 30-minute) presentation on some new approach, model, or framework for solving particular kinds of problems. Then, the trainees disperse into breakout rooms in small groups to discuss how the framework just presented via lecture might be useful in resolving problems they actually face in their employee’s work environment. Such an approach—known as action learning—helps appeal to the kinesthetic learner who needs hands-on applications in order to best learn.
Case Study
A case study provides a realistic situation for trainees who must put themselves in the shoes of the decision maker in the case and try to resolve a problem using materials or frameworks learned in the training. It can also be used to stimulate interest in a given topic if the case presents a challenge that trainees have a difficult time resolving. Cases appeal to adult learners because they provide immediate application of learning. For instance, if a group were learning about financial planning, a case could be provided with details of a fictitious couple’s financial situation, current net worth, income level, savings and retirement investments, and, in groups, the trainees could develop a set of recommendations on what this couple should do going forward.
Reading and Self-Study
In an attempt to appeal to all learning styles, the use of reading—either in class or before class—can be a part of an overall training strategy. It is often overlooked because it seems passive, but reading provides time for quiet reflection that trainees may need in order to process new information or tie down significant learning take-aways for themselves. For instance, trainees could be asked to complete some type of reading or assignment before the training starts. Then, astute trainers will start the classroom portion of the training by getting reports from trainees on what they learned from this pre-work. This establishes the norm of participation and that the background and perspectives of trainees are valued in the training.
If much content is to be learned through reading and self-study, then training materials can be designed that allow participants to work at their own pace. Often, this type of training will involve the use of CDs or web-based materials or workbooks. Advantages to self-directed study include that it is flexible and individually paced, provides opportunities for testing and then relearning if test scores are below standard, allows a trainee to focus on particular areas that are most relevant or interesting, and is cost-effective if there are a large number of trainees involved. Disadvantages to self-directed study include that learners must be highly self-motivated and organized, get little direct feedback unless it is built in, sometimes skip over important content because they are not interested, and it is expensive to develop good programs such as these.
Simulation and Structured Exercises
Simulations allow trainees to learn by doing in realistic circumstances, but without the penalties of making mistakes on the job. Both simulations and structured exercises typically involve a facilitator and allow participants to practice skills and apply knowledge they have just gained in a training program. For instance, new HR recruits whose first job will be to interview applicants for factory jobs can be given information about how such interviews should be conducted or they can observe some models of good interviewing behavior on video, and then can be asked to conduct simulated interviews with factory workers brought in to the training classroom for this purpose. In such an activity—as is typical of all simulation and structured exercises—trainees would be given immediate feedback on how they did in the assigned task.
Group Discussion
The opportunity to provide one’s own perspective and to hear the perspectives of other trainees is generally a rewarding experience for most adult learners. Therefore, many training programs—particularly supervisory, management, and executive development programs—benefit from including opportunities for group discussion. As noted above in the discussion of lecture as a classroom training technique, the addition of an assignment to be completed by a small group in a breakout session can be a critical component of making the lecture approach work well. Adult learners expect the trainer or facilitator to respect their experience and judgment. Group discussion provides a forum for the exchange of information wherein the facilitator is not the expert, but rather the participants are. Group discussion can occur with groups of various sizes, from two (pair and share) to much larger. However, if the group size gets over about six, then some structured mechanism is necessary to assure that all group members get to participate and the discussion is not dominated by just a few trainees. For instance, in an approach to group decision making known as the nominal group technique, all group members get to provide input until everyone is out of ideas.
8.4E-Learning and Blended Learning
Technological capabilities in learning system designs have been expanding rapidly. Many training programs, just like most institutions of higher education today, use a learning management system (LMS) to help organize and manage coursework and training completion. These LMSs, such as Blackboard or Canvas, enable entire classes to be structured and delivered online in an e-learning format. Such a format may include links to online videos, recorded lectures, readings, discussions, chat rooms, online exams, and so forth. These technologies permit the transfer of knowledge almost anywhere at any time. This flexibility explains their rise in popularity. However, as with other approaches to training, the choice to use e-learning should be based on the overall objectives of the program and the needs it seeks to address. For instance, if the primary objective of the training is to build interpersonal and team skills, it is unlikely that a purely e-learning program will suffice.
In the context of e-learning, trainers are often facilitators who moderate discussions and provide online feedback and supplemental resources as the course progresses. Facilitators should be skilled at functioning in an online environment, which is quite different from the traditional classroom setting.
Types of E-Learning Settings
Synchronous
There are generally two types of e-learning settings. The first is synchronous wherein the participants gather in real time to interact with the facilitator, the course content, and the other participants. In such a setting, there would typically be video conferencing technology to allow participants at diverse locations to see each other and interact in real time. A lower tech version of this would be to use a chat room where comments are posted but no video conferencing is available.
Asynchronous
The second approach to e-learning is called asynchronous, meaning that students do not interact at the same time, but whenever they are available. Trainees work independently, though they may post comments or questions to a discussion board and may respond to others’ comments on a delayed basis whenever they visit the LMS set up for the course. Asynchronous programs are particularly useful when trainees work in very different time zones around the world.
E-Learning Pros and Cons
E-learning advantages include wide and quick distribution of information to a large number of trainees, building and assisting in globalization efforts through virtual communication, consistency in the information and training content as it is distributed, scheduling flexibility, the ability to revisit a portion of the course if necessary to ensure learning, and it is cost effective if large numbers of trainees are involved.
E-learning disadvantages include the high dropout rates among program participants, the requirement that trainees be high in self-discipline and also reasonably comfortable with new technology, the challenge to make online activities meaningful for each participant, security concerns with intellectual property, technological glitches that interfere with learning, and the high investment in time and cost on the front end to develop such courses. Another potential drawback to e-learning is that it turns over more control to learners to make decisions about what and how to learn. A recent meta-analysis showed that while there are sometimes modest advantages to increasing learner control, there are often significant disadvantages. For instance, low-ability or inexperienced learners may make poor decisions about what and how to learn under high learner control conditions.
Blended Learning
A variation of e-learning that is increasing in popularity is known as blended learning. In university settings, one often hears the term flipped classroom. This means that all information and knowledge sharing that has been done in class traditionally through lecture is flipped to an online environment and class time is used instead for discussion, synthesis, and application. Instructors may record video or audio lectures, write out lectures, or rely on materials already available online to convey the content of the course that has usually been done through class lecture. The instructor may require online discussions or quizzes ahead of time to ensure that participants have done the necessary pre-work to allow for effective use of class time once everyone gets together. Recent studies have shown that the right mix of learning approaches, based on the goals of the program and the needs of the participants, leads to better training outcomes than the use of a single methodology. Thus, blended learning may provide the best of all worlds in terms of training design and development because it can efficiently convey information online, and then use the types of approaches to learning that appeal to adults in class, such as group discussion, case analyses, simulation, and so forth. It would also allow any skill to be taught (e.g., listening, soldering) by both conveying information online and then practicing in class where feedback would be available. Blended approaches can be structured so as to appeal to all three types of learning styles—auditory, visual, and kinesthetic.
Blended learning requires the use of the same kind of learning system design principles used in the design of traditional classroom training, but with added attention to the following:
Which parts of the course design are best conducted online and which lend themselves better to face-to-face discussion
Bridges to connect what happens online to what happens in the classroom
Clear expectations and instructions for accessing materials online
Adequate support networks for the online portion of the course
Ways to track participation and completion of online course content
Participant application and follow-up strategies
8.5Internal vs. External Training
One of the key decisions to be made when developing and implementing training is whether to use an in-house trainer or to go outside to a consultant or third-party training vendor. As one would imagine, there are advantages and disadvantages with each approach.
Internal Training
Keeping the training in-house is popular for several reasons. It saves the cost of sending trainees to the program (which, of course, can be avoided if the vendor brings the training on-site) and avoids the cost of hiring the outside firm. Often, skills-based technical training is conducted in-house because more capable and experienced employees can train others and do so using the exact methods and techniques expected on the job. Sometimes, it is necessary to train on a topic that the existing culture or procedures of the organization is an important component of the training, and here again it is most common to keep the training in-house. For instance, if an organization conducts performance appraisals in a particular way and the aim of the training is to increase supervisors’ skills in conducting such appraisals, only an internal trainer is likely to able to convey this information to the trainees.
One of the most common approaches to internal training is so-called on-the-job training, or OJT. Here the supervisor—or sometimes peers—consciously tutor the trainee in key skills, knowledge, and information that are necessary to do a particular job successfully. To be effective, OJT should be carefully planned and not haphazard. Learning objectives should be clearly articulated and the current knowledge and skill levels of the trainee accurately assessed. The thought that should go into an OJT training program is exhibited by the detail in the steps involved in the process if it is done well.
Steps in the On-the-Job Training Process1
Step 1: Prepare the Learners
Put them at ease
Find out what they know and what they don’t know
Find out what they can do and what they can’t do
Get them interested in learning
Step 2: Present the Information
Tell, show, demonstrate, ask questions
Present one point at a time and allow time for it to sink in
Make sure they know each point
Step 3: Have Trainee Practice
Have trainee perform the tasks
Ask questions
Observe and correct any errors
Evaluate mastery
Step 4: Perform Follow-up
Put trainees on their own for awhile
Check in frequently to see how they are doing
Decrease follow-up as performance improves
External Training
External training is used extensively by organizations of all sizes. Smaller firms may use it primarily because they do not have the internal capability to do their own training. Larger firms may use it so as to bring in some outside perspectives not available internally. It is also frequently used for executive education where internal trainers may not want to be involved for fear of negative career repercussions. That is, external trainers can tell upper-level executives the truth (they can, for instance, provide negative feedback about a leader’s communication style) without fear of job loss.
External training may be used in situations where a large number of trainees need to be trained in a short period of time. External training organizations frequently have off-the-shelf programs they can roll out very quickly. And because external training firms frequently have flexible staffing arrangements, with a number of trainers and consultants on call, they can ramp up quickly to serve a large audience. Given the fact that training programs from external firms have already been developed, the ultimate cost to the client organization may actually be lower than having similar training done in-house. And, there is at least one other potential advantage to some types of external training. If the training involves employees from a variety of organizations, trainees may benefit from hearing the experiences and best practices from others involved in the off-site training.
A final example of the external training that is increasing in popularity is where vendors and suppliers do some training for the client organization. Computer software vendors, for instance, will sometimes offer technical certificates in the use of their software to their customers’ employees. For example, Microsoft offers training for customer technical specialists that results in awarding the Certified Product Specialist designation to show a certain level of software capability. These certifications benefit employers who can use them as job specifications in the hiring of new employees, and they benefit employees who can put the certification on their résumés if they decide to change jobs or upgrade their current position.
Of course, there are combination approaches to internal and external training. The author is familiar with at least two instances where training programs were purchased from an outside vendor but delivered and taught by internal personnel. In the first instance, a firm with 40,000 employees decided they wanted everyone trained in how to use a popular time management program. Initially, they planned to bring in contract trainers from the vendor but quickly decided that it would be more expedient to get internal trainers certified to be time management facilitators who could then deliver the training to the remaining 40,000 employees. In another instance, a small organization with about 150 employees went through a week long team-building program with external program developers, but then decided that they would need refresher training on an annual basis. Due to budget constraints, the organization decided to engage with the same outside program developers in a train-the-trainer program where a few select internal people were taught how to design, conduct, and debrief experiential activities that would keep employees current on effective ways to operate in their teams. More details regarding this particular training program are discussed in Topic 10, Section 10.4.
8.6Selecting the Facilitator or Trainer
Effective facilitators possess a variety of traits and capabilities that make them capable of leading training sessions, whether face-to-face, online, or in blended learning environments. All facilitators have different styles and preferences, and training managers need to be careful to select the ones whose styles and capabilities match the goals and objectives of the training. Also, the training method and nature of the audience help determine the appropriate facilitator. Regardless of the differences, there are some common characteristics that good trainers will possess.
Training Expert
Well-versed in adult learning theory, a training expert is experienced in teaching in a variety of settings, uses active learning strategies, and engages the participants well.
Subject Matter Expert
A subject matter expert is an expert in program content and is able to answer questions, relate practical experiences, and conduct problem-solving exercises.
Consultant
A consultant uses consultative skills, understands the business model of the organization and the relationship of the training to business strategy, and enhances learning by observing, describing, and coaching.
Communications Expert
Exhibiting strong communication skills through reflective listening and supportive communication, a communications expert is familiar with group dynamics and group processes and is an experienced presenter and facilitator of group discussions.
In order for trainers to possess all the characteristics above, it may be necessary to implement train-the-trainer programs. It is common to ask subject matter experts to conduct training in their areas of expertise. Unfortunately, just knowing the material does not make someone a good trainer. Gaining familiarity with the craft of training may also be required through such train-the-trainer efforts. Exposure to adult learning theories, practice in developing learning objectives and designing training activities, and experience in evaluating other training programs may be helpful for someone wishing to become a trainer. A new trainer should be provided with an opportunity to conduct a small portion of a training program, and then get feedback on how he or she did.
This video can be viewed online.
Being a Good Trainer (01:39)
This download can be found online.
An organization with which the author is familiar contracted with a university-based group of facilitators to develop an outdoor team-building program for its top managers. The program was implemented and run by the outsiders. It was deemed so successful that the top management group decided they wanted the rest of the organization trained as well. However, they lacked the budget to allow the use of the outside facilitators so they instead engaged in a process of developing their own internal trainers. A needs assessment determined that this group was high on organizational knowledge and generally good on the consultant skill set noted above. They had been through the training themselves and in the process had developed a fair understanding of the program content (that is, they were early on in the process of becoming SMEs). Where they needed the most training was in communication and debriefing skills, as well as becoming familiar with how others learn most effectively and efficiently. Therefore, a six-month training program was developed over the winter for this group of internal trainers dealing with these topics. Then, when spring arrived they were able to conduct the outdoor team building program for the rest of the organization at significant cost savings.
8.7Selecting a Training Facility
While this may seem to be a minor detail in overall program design and development, the importance of the site and the layout of the room cannot be overstated. Trainees must be comfortable if they are to learn. A drab and dreary learning environment will reduce participant enthusiasm for the course. If training participants are in a site where they are constantly getting interruptions and questions from work colleagues (via text or email), they will not be able to focus on the training program learning objectives. If the room layout has all participants facing the front of the room where a lectern has been set up, it will be difficult to get the class involved in group discussions and case analyses. Therefore, as a first step, a training site should be selected that have the following features:
Comfortable and accessible
Energizing, with relevant training stimuli distributed throughout the room (e.g., posters, activities, coffee break locations)
Quiet, private, and free from interruptions
Sufficient space and flexibility for trainees to move about freely and has adequate table top space to allow for the work that needs to be done
Good visibility so that trainees can see the trainer, any visual displays, and each other
If participants are to be in chairs for an extended period of time, it is important that chairs have a high rating (chairs get ratings such as a 2-hour chair or an 8-hour chair based on the level of comfort). The facility must have adequate lighting, ventilation, and temperature control. The technology in the room must match the type of training method in use, and it must work as advertised. Breaks should be carefully planned to keep participants fresh and alert, as well as to facilitate informal interactions. In accord with the Americans with Disabilities Act, the facility must also be accessible for employees with disabilities.
Seating arrangements are particularly important. A tiered lecture hall with seats all facing the front and immovable desks in front of each seat creates one type of feel for a training facility—namely, participants expect a lecture. A hotel conference center with circular tables and lots of materials available on each table creates another type of feel—namely, this is going to be a highly interactive session wherein participants will be working with the others at their table. There are a myriad of variations in between these two, and in the best conference and training centers there will be a variety of setups possible. As noted in an earlier example, the author has seen very effective training done at a site where there was a large lecture hall used to deliver new information or frameworks to a hundred or so participants in short 30-minute doses, and then breakout rooms with circular tables where participants would go in groups of about ten to discuss and apply the concepts just presented via lecture.
Of course, the best facility is one that matches up with the goals of the training. A course designed to build stronger relations across organizational boundaries might take place in an accessible, but relatively remote mountain setting with rustic accommodations where participants have to do their own cooking and cleaning. The lack of communication with the outside world and the need to work together to eat and accomplish a prescribed agenda would facilitate the goal of learning to work productively with those in other parts of the organization. Conversely, if the goal of the training is to learn new best practices from outside the organization, a hotel conference facility with table teams for discussion and application among intact work teams may be the best choice for a training venue.
8.8Newer Training Techniques
New Age Training Technologies
While space limitations prohibit extensive coverage and explanation of all available training methods, several newer approaches will be briefly outlined below.1 One relatively new arrival on the corporate training scene is a group of training techniques known collectively as new age training technologies. While considered borderline ethical by some because of their mysticism, spiritism, and mind control aspects, several specific techniques from this group have begun to achieve acceptance as mainstream training methodologies.2
Relaxation
While there are multiple specific approaches to relaxation, the basic idea is to get participants to focus 100 percent on some non-job-related target, such as their own breathing pattern. Used primarily as a stress-reduction technique, there is some evidence that relaxation and meditation are also helpful in enhancing creativity and rejuvenating oneself during or after a tiring work day.
Affirmation
Also known as positive self-talk, there is some evidence that top performers use positive thoughts and eliminate preconceived personal limitations in conducting their daily business. For example, one study of 90 successful leaders in a wide variety of occupations found that a common characteristic shared by all was a very high level of self-confidence and use of words such as glitch or temporary setback rather than use of the word failure.3
As a training method, the affirmation approach leads participants through a series of steps that teach the processes of monitoring one’s own self-talk, refuting negative statements, and focusing on repetition of positive statements.
Visualization
Also called imaging and envisioning, this approach helps trainees experience something they want to happen by seeing it happen first in their minds and experiencing the associated feelings. Visualization is fairly common in the world of sports, where professional golfers, for example, visualize a long putt dropping in the cup prior to stroking the ball. There is also some evidence that successful managers use visualization to mentally rehearse for major events, imagine alternative futures, synthesize facts, and prepare for contingencies.4
As a training technique, trainers assist participants in learning how to mentally rehearse the successful accomplishment of major work events, such as the delivery of a motivational sales presentation or the positive confrontation of one’s boss over a serious managerial style problem.
Outdoor Management Training
Another approach to training that has gained a significant following in recent years is known as outdoor management training, or adventure-based training. These training programs consist of a series of perceived high-risk activities—such as rock climbing or river running—that force participants to take another look at themselves, their propensity to take risks, and their individual approaches to dealing with problems and stress. The programs also generally have a significant focus on team building and learning to work more effectively in a group through experiential activities requiring team effort. Interspersed with these physical events are reflection and discussion of key learning highlights and the connection between learning in the outdoors and applications to the work environment.
Organizations that have undertaken the expense of outdoor training have generally done so in an attempt to enhance participant self-awareness, build individual and group skills in problem solving, encourage the taking of reasonable organizational risks (e.g., speaking up when a boss is undertaking a course of action one deems as unwise or unethical), build a sense of enthusiasm and self-confidence about task accomplishment, break down barriers across organizational functions by building informal networks, and enhance the overall level of team skills present in the organization. There is currently plenty of anecdotal evidence but little hard evidence that outdoor training programs have these desired effects. (In Topic 10, on the evaluation of training, we will discuss one study that was well designed and that did provide evidence of the efficacy of an outdoor team-building program.) However, experience suggests that careful design of the outdoor program will improve its chances of success. Specific guidelines include the following:5
The program should be designed on the basis of sound principles of learning.
Like other programs, outdoor training requires the visible and active support of top management in order to be successful.
The program should be linked in a clear and obvious way to the major strategic direction of the organization.
Skilled and experienced facilitators and safety technicians are required.
Multiple methods for ensuring transfer of learning to the work environment should be present in the program design.
Culture Buy-In Training
A final new approach to training that will be mentioned might be labeled culture buy-in training. The primary purpose in such training is to communicate to participants that the organization is undergoing a fundamental and radical change in corporate culture necessitated by external competitive pressures and to attempt to get everyone involved in the change and committed to the new direction.6 For example, Jack Welch and his top management team at General Electric decided in the late 1980s that GE simply could not be competitive in the 1990s and beyond unless the organization transformed itself from a slow, hesitant bureaucracy into a fast, flexible, much more nimble corporation. The result was a program named Work-Out, the metaphor being that GE needed to trim down, tone muscle, gain flexibility, and develop stamina in all its operations.7
A number of outside consultants were hired to help deliver the message of the new corporate culture to all of GE’s 14 major business groups and to develop specific training programs for each business that would help ensure commitment to the new vision. A typical training session that evolved was known as the town hall meeting, in which all major players in a particular group were taken off-site for several days and developed specific strategies for helping their business move in the direction of the new vision. With the significant changes that have occurred in the business and competitive climate during the 1980s and 1990s for US organizations, it is not surprising that corporate cultures have undergone dramatic changes and that training programs such as the one at GE have become increasingly common in other organizations.
One of the obvious conclusions from the GE example above is that the role of training in organizations has expanded in recent years. Training is now, at least in many firms, a much more important contributor to the development and enhancement of a strategic competitive advantage than it once was.8
Table 8.1
Changing Roles in Human Resource Training and Development
1970s
Passive
Responding to training needs
Sitting in the back of the room, taking care of logistics (lighting, notebooks)
1980s
Police
Ensuring that training is well administered (people attend and participate)
1990s
Partner
Ensuring that participants learn material that is critical to business success (team building, projects)
2000s
Pioneer
Preparing and delivering training that bridges boundaries between an organization and its customers and/or supplies
Involving customers actively in management training, team building, and vaule seeting activites
2010s
Protagonist
Breaking what is fixed
Training to provide needs beyond customer’s expectations
8.9Training Program Rollout
When all the details have been worked out—the learning objectives are in place, the audience and facilitator have been selected, the materials have been developed, and the site and layout have been determined—it is time to launch the program. It is highly recommended that the first attempt of any training program be treated as a pilot program (or a pilot test). In a sense, this is a dress rehearsal for the real training. For example, a group of potential trainees and their managers could be asked to participate in a run through of a new online training module and then be asked for their feedback and ideas for improvement. They could be asked a series of structured questions, assessing the degree to which the material flowed logically, the appropriateness of the tone and technology, the quality of the graphics and videos, the usefulness of the exercises and problems posed, and so forth.
At this stage, the program should be offered in a controlled environment with a select audience that represents the most receptive possible segment of the overall target audience. When the author was conducting training as part of GE’s Work-Out program some years ago when the training was run for first time, HR was asked to put together a group of 80 mid-level engineers who would be representative of future trainees, but who would likely be the most willing to make constructive suggestions to improve the program before final launch. After this pilot program, we were able to evaluate the sequencing of content, the effectiveness of the chosen learning activities, and the time allotted to different parts of the three-day program. We were also able to determine if the physical space and layout were appropriate and test out various assumptions about program design, development, and implementation. Wherever we found any of these program characteristics needed adjustment or revision, we were able to make such adjustments prior to rolling out the program to subsequent, perhaps less receptive, audiences. Pilot testing was very advantageous in this case!
An often overlooked aspect of training is marketing. By this we mean the development of a positive mindset about the program. The pilot program mentioned above is an opportunity to begin to develop such a mindset. The word will get back to other potential trainees and the managers of these trainees if the program is well done and meets learning objectives that are consistent with organizational goals and strategies. Word-of-mouth is the trainer’s greatest ally in helping generate a positive buzz about the program. And, a positive reputation for the training will create interest, motivation, increased attendance, increased attention, greater advance preparation, and, ultimately, increased learning as a result of the program.
8.10Conclusion
In this topic we have discussed the details of training program design, development, and implementation. That is, we have touched on the DDI of the ADDIE model, with the focus mostly on detailed development and implementation issues. We have argued that the choices made in terms of types and methods of training should be driven by the overall objectives of the training as determined by the needs assessment and program design. Once the bigger choices of types and methods of training are made, then the details of the program must be developed: who will do the training, where and when it will happen, who will attend, and so forth.
In the next topic we revisit some of these design issues with an eye toward answering the question of what types of training will likely enhance transfer of learning to the employee’s work environment. A characteristic of good training is that it builds in mechanisms for effective transfer because, as we will see, lots of learning without transfer back to the job is wasted effort when it comes to training and development.
Topic 8 Quick Check
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Introduction
Transfer of training means that trainees effectively and continually apply what they learned in training (new skills, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors) back on the job. The degree to which training transfers is determined by characteristics of the trainee, the nature of the work environment, and the approach to training that is utilized. The design of training (the first D in the ADDIE model) should consider the ultimate goal of transfer from the very beginning in the process of design. In fact, transfer should be taken into consideration even during the needs assessment stage (the A stage).
In this topic we discuss how transfer can be facilitated in the design and implementation of training. We start with a definition of transfer and some examples. Then we present a model of training transfer and discuss specific strategies for increasing positive transfer. This includes not only ideas for the training itself, but also learner characteristics and what types of work environments are most supportive of learning and transfer.
9.1The Challenge of Training Transfer
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Transfer and Training (00:54)
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Learning Objectives
Describe various outcomes of training transfer.
Apply actions that increase training transfer before, during, and after training.
We noted in Topic 1 that American organizations with more than 100 employees are estimated to spend more than $150 billion a year on training. Of course, without transfer this money is wasted. And, unfortunately, there are estimates that as little as 10 percent of training expenditures result in effective transfer.1 Therefore, human resource managers and training and development specialists need to be acutely aware of the factors that facilitate and hinder transfer of learning to the workplace.
Types of Transfer
Transfer refers to the extent to which what was learned in training is used on the job. Three transfer possibilities exist.
Positive transfer indicates that learning in training results in better performance back on the job.
Negative transfer indicates that learning in training results in poorer performance back on the job.
Zero transfer indicates that learning in training has no effect on performance back on the job.
Training that has negative transfer is detrimental to the organization and training with zero transfer represents a waste of resources. Nevertheless, as noted above, instances of zero—and sometimes negative—transfer are all too common. For example, in one organization that trained new employees in the fabrication of fiberglass paddle boat hulls, it was common practice to introduce competition into the training program so that trainees competed for prizes based on who learned the production processes most quickly. The company found that these prizes did indeed increase the rate at which trainees learned and increased the number of boat hulls they could produce in a given period of time. Unfortunately, they also found that these same trainees, once transferred to the production floor, had considerably higher rates of scrap and rework than those who had not been exposed to the training. Management soon realized that they were teaching employees in the training to maximize production at the expense of quality, an example of negative transfer.
Furthermore, there are two types of positive transfer: near transfer and far transfer. Near transfer refers to a trainee’s ability to apply the lessons learned from training in contexts that are identical or quite similar to that of the training environment. In contrast, far transfer refers to the trainee’s ability to apply learned knowledge and skills to a work environment that may be quite different from the training environment. The programmatic differences that one would expect to see in design, depending on whether one is aiming for near or far transfer, are summarized in Tabe 9.1 below.2
Tabe 9.1
Near Transfer versus Far Transfer
Near Transfer
Far Transfer
The program teaches specific concepts and procedures.
Trainees are given an explanation of any differences between the training tasks and the work tasks.
Trainees are encouraged to focus only on important differences between training tasks and work tasks (e.g., rate of completion).
Skills and knowledge learned in the training should contribute directly to improvements in performance on the job.
The program teaches general concepts and broad principles.
Trainees are made aware of examples from their experiences that are similar to those emphasized in training so that connections can be made among strategies that have been effective in different situations.
The program emphasizes that general principles might be applied to a greater set of contexts than those presented in the training itself.
Many training programs aim for near transfer. For example, police training may involve learning how to fire a sidearm accurately under pressure or drive a police car at high rates of speed. Trainees are put into time-sensitive situations and taught how to engage in tasks like these on the job. On the other hand, there are other types of training where the goal is to be able to transfer skills to a variety of situations. We can use police training as an example again, only here officers may be involved in interpersonal skills training. The idea is that such training might be useful in situations as varied as a hostage negotiation, a domestic violence dispute, or simply an argument with a citizen over a speeding ticket. The point is that the training designer must be aware of what goals the training is seeking to fulfill and attempt to develop training approaches that facilitate the type of transfer that is desired.
9.2A Model of Training Transfer
For trainers and training managers to be able to think clearly about the challenges of training transfer, it is useful to have a guiding framework or model. As noted in the introduction, the three determinants of positive training transfer include characteristics of the trainee, the design and conduct of the training itself, and the nature of the work environment into which the learning must transfer.
The model1 suggests that the three determinants of training transfer interact with each other through the intervening variable of learning retention, and that both trainee characteristics and work environment have independent effects on training transfer as well. So, for example, an effective learning environment for someone who is a visual learner may lead him or her to retain the learning while a kinesthetic learner in the same environment might not. Similarly, two learners with different styles could both retain the learning but go back to much different working environments and experience much different levels of transfer because of those differences. We will discuss each of these factors below, but do so in a chronological sequence organized by steps that will likely increase transfer before, during, and after the training.
9.3Strategies to Enhance Transfer: Before Training
Cast a Broad Net
As noted above, transfer should be considered as early as the A in the ADDIE model. That is, needs analysis should be conducted in ways that increase the likelihood of transfer. For example, the broader the net is cast in terms of gathering information about training needs, the wider the consensus will be about the need for training and what the objectives of the training should be. Therefore, it is a good idea to include at least a representative sample of employees who are likely to be the targets of any training, along with their supervisors, their internal and external customers, higher-level management, and representatives from the training department. It is also critical that potential trainees see the needs analysis process as one of high integrity—where their opinions and views are valued and are factored into the design of any subsequent training program. This will increase pre-training motivation and interest, which will, in turn, increase the likelihood of positive transfer after the program is over.
Seek Support of Management
It is also important to seek out the support of immediate supervisors and upper-level management in the early stages of any training program design. Supervisor support is one of the critical factors in the work environment that will determine whether or not the learning from training transfers. When trainees perceive that their own direct supervisors are interested in their learning and they will be reinforced and rewarded for applying new skills and knowledge gained in training, they are more likely to learn in the first place and then transfer this learning back to work. Besides involving supervisors in the needs assessment, it is also possible in some cases to get their input into training design and even their participation in certain key parts of the training. Barring these possibilities, it is a good idea to send supervisors advance notification of the training and list out the potential benefits he or she may experience when subordinates return from the training. Lastly, supervisors could be reminded of the critical role they play in reinforcing new learning and behaviors that trainees exhibit once back on the job.
Prepare Trainees
The trainees themselves should also get advance notification of the training, what the learning objectives are, and how they will personally benefit from the training. Here, testimonials from others who have been through the training can be particularly effective. It is important to build trainees’ confidence in advance so that they can be successful and provide convincing rationale that the training will be beneficial. Further, trainees are often keen to know some of the details: where the training will be held, who will be in attendance, how long it will take, who the trainers will be, what methods will be used, and so forth. The author well remembers how a female employee once showed up at an outdoor learning center in four-inch spiked heels and a dress for a team building program in the mountains. Clearly, the training organizers in this case failed in communicating some of the important preparatory details to all participants.
Use Pre-Work
To stimulate interest, trainers will sometimes assign readings or a realistic case study to be analyzed in advance of the training. Alternatively, this pre-work could include some self-assessment or self-awareness questionnaires to be completed. In all cases, the pre-work should provide trainees a glimpse of what to expect in the training. Further, it is important that whatever pre-work is assigned be used thoroughly and early in the training. In fact, a good warm-up for many types of training is to get participants to engage in a discussion of whatever pre-work they were asked to complete within the first hour or so of the start of a training program.
Examine Attitudes
Evidence suggests that trainees are more likely to transfer training when they have high organizational commitment and low cynicism about change.1 Therefore, if the workforce as a whole is low in commitment and high in cynicism, it would be money well spent to invest in trying to solve these problems first before designing and implementing training that may not transfer well because of negative attitudes. At the very least, if these problems exist in general in the organization, one strategy would be to identify first-round training participants who are outliers in this regard and have higher than average commitment and lower than average cynicism. This will at least give the training program a fighting chance to get off to a positive start so that the buzz around the program will be favorable in the beginning.
The author remembers one very unsuccessful training program he was involved in where upper management insisted that the problems faced in the organization could be addressed by putting lower-level supervisors and employees through interpersonal skills training (communication, conflict resolution, and the like). The lower-level employees who showed up at the training were equally insistent that the real problem was the poor interpersonal skills of the upper managers. Having seen a number of attempts at organizational problem solving fail, the trainees were very cynical about the chances of any improvements happening that would be beneficial to them. As a result, employees never engaged with the training and the end result was a self-fulfilling prophecy—no transfer occurred and nothing improved at the organization.
Foster Motivation
There is also evidence that pre-training motivation to learn is a good predictor of eventual training transfer.2 A study of almost 1,000 state government managers in Tennessee suggested that pre-training motivation to learn was a better predictor of transfer than support from management and support from peers, which are generally thought to be pretty important in training transfer. Pre-training motivation to learn, in turn, seemed to be most affected by the reputation of the training, inherent intrinsic satisfaction from learning, and organizational commitment. The latter factor is consistent with the discussion immediately above. The reputation of the training is something trainers and training program administrators are at least partially in control of. By engaging in the steps outlined above—casting the net broadly during needs analysis, broadcasting the benefits of the program to potential participants and supervisors, distributing interesting and relevant pre-work—the reputation of the program can be enhanced. Then, of course, the conduct of the program must be first-rate so that word-of-mouth is positive among those who have already participated in the program.
Design for Fidelity
Finally, during program design and development, it is important to try to make the training as similar to the transfer environment at possible. The theory of identical elements proposes that transfer occurs best when what is being learned in training is identical to what the trainee must perform on the job. That is, tasks, materials, equipment, and other characteristics of the learning environment should be as similar to the job as possible. For some jobs, it is possible for the training to take place in an identical setting. Examples would be training someone to solder electronics components onto a printed circuit board or training a medical student to conduct a particular type of hernia surgery. The setting could be identical to the workplace, but the difference would be that a skilled trainer would be there to give continuous feedback and reinforcement for proper technique. In other cases, it is impossible to replicate the working environment for various reasons. An example of that would be the training of airplane pilots. It is not feasible to simply take a beginning pilot up in a million-dollar plane and hope the flight instructor can correct any serious mistakes the trainee might make. Instead, cockpit simulators can be used to show pilots in training what mistakes are involved in making a plane stall and what the outcomes of a stall can be. The cockpit simulator can be constructed so that it is identical to the cockpit of a particular type of commercial aircraft—right down to the same gauges, dials, lighting, and so forth. In psychological terms, we say the learning environment has complete fidelity with the work environment. Fidelity refers to the extent to which the training environment mimics the work environment, and, as such, represents a reasonable goal for all training settings.
9.4Strategies to Enhance Transfer: During Training
We have already discussed in Topic 7 how the principles of learning theory in general—and adult learning theory in particular—can be used in the design of training to maximize learning. Maximum learning, in turn, presents the best opportunity for maximum transfer. It is important for the program designer to be clear about the learning objectives he or she is trying to achieve. Are we interested in knowledge acquisition, skill building, or both? Are we looking for near or far transfer, or both?
Practice, Practice, Practice
In general, good training provides for as much opportunity to practice as possible. This is true regardless of whether a trainee is learning a cognitive task or a physical task. Adult learners have limited patience for theoretical learning or long lectures. It is better during the training to provide quick theory inputs or instructional content, followed by extended opportunities for practice, gaining experience, or group discussion. To the extent possible, the practice should take place in a context very close to the employee’s work environment. Of course, this is more important if the goal is near transfer. If the goal is far transfer, then the practice should take place in a variety of settings with discussion of the general principles underlying the action in each setting. There may even be instances in training when one wants to teach when NOT to use a particular new skill. For instance, if trainees are learning how to listen reflectively, it may be useful to coach them on how to not overuse this technique when it is unnecessary for understanding.
Illustrate Principles
Even in situations where the goal is near transfer, it is often useful to make sure that trainees understand the general principles underlying specific actions in specific situations. Transfer is generally improved when such learning occurs because trainees can see the why for those actions as well as the what. Understanding the rationale for a given set of behaviors generates commitment to use them on the part of the trainee.
Teach Self-Management
During training of any type, trainers can facilitate transfer by helping employees learn to self-regulate their own behaviors back on the job. Self-regulation involves goal setting, self-monitoring, and self-reward or self-punishment depending on the discrepancy between the goal set and the actual behavior. Research suggests that employees can learn to set goals for themselves, formulate a contract with themselves for meeting those goals, accurately assess and monitor their own performance relative to the goals, and then self-administer rewards or punishments as appropriate. One study, for example, found that self-management instruction increased the amount of transfer in the training of supervisors on negotiation skills. The self-management instruction in this case involved presenting examples of previous self-management programs, teaching proper approaches to goal setting, identifying potential obstacles to success and planning ways to overcome these obstacles, self-monitoring of progress, and the use of self-reinforcement techniques to encourage transfer.1 Self-management is important because no matter what the training involves, the trainee is likely to encounter obstacles to transfer back on the job. These obstacles are many and varied, but include things like time pressure, inadequate or outdated equipment, lack of peer or supervisory support, and so on. Being prepared to handle these obstacles without getting discouraged is an important part of successful transfer of training.
Use Questions
If the training revolves around factual learning, it is a good idea to precede the introduction of this material with a set of questions. Questions that need answering provide additional motivation and generate interest. Questions that have been derived from the needs analysis and represent real questions that participants in the training may have are especially useful. The author once participated in a training session for a large state government agency wherein the goal was to get commitment of employees to a new level of customer service. As adult learners generally need to know the why of any training before they will commit to the what, the trainers developed a list of questions that evolved from the needs analysis and used those questions to stimulate a discussion at the start of the training.
What is the rationale for pursing a higher level of customer service?
What do we mean, exactly, by customer service in this state agency?
Why now? And so forth.
Training participants discussed their own answers to the questions and then upper managers visited the training session to provide their own perspective on what the answers might be.
Make It Applicable
Finally, as discussed in Topic 7, adult learners are most receptive to training programs where the applicability of the learning to their lives is direct and obvious. Therefore, trainers and training designers should work hard during the training to make sure participants see applications to the job, and, possibly, to their lives off the job (e.g., in the case of interpersonal skills training). Positive transfer is also facilitated when trainees feel the trainer fully understands their situations and job challenges and how they feel about their work. This is most likely to happen when the trainer is from inside the organization. So, when an external firm or facilitator is chosen to conduct the training, it is important to do everything possible to familiarize the outside trainer with the culture, climate, and job challenges faced inside the organization.
9.5Strategies to Enhance Transfer: After Training
If trainees emerge from the training with new skills and knowledge, are motivated to apply the new learning, and have developed an application plan for self-managing the transfer and overcoming any potential roadblocks, then the first step after training is to provide ample opportunities to practice the learned tasks on the job. The opportunity for practice consists of three dimensions.
Breadth—how many of the trained skills trainees use on the job
Activity level—the number of repetitions trainees get back on the job
Task type—the level of challenge represented in the application of learning on the job.
Managers and supervisors looking to increase transfer should be alert to opportunities for applying the full breadth of learning, a large number of times, and across a variety of difficulty levels.
Foster Ongoing Support
Supervisor Support
The support of managers, supervisors, and work peers is essential for full transfer of learning. The most crucial of these is the immediate supervisor. If he or she shows interest in what the trainee has learned, is supportive, and reinforces the newly acquired skills, there is a considerably greater likelihood of positive transfer than if the supervisor is openly negative about it. There is also the important aspect of role modeling. If, for instance, the employee has gone to training in which he or she has learned how to communicate in ways that come across as supportive, but the supervisor consistently uses an abrasive communication style, it is unlikely that the supportive communication training will transfer effectively. The importance of support from these groups—managers, supervisors, peers—is the reason that trainers want to make sure to involve them prior to the training, in the needs analysis, the program rationale and design, and in communicating the importance and potential advantages of the training. This point was discussed above.
Trainer Support
While managers, supervisors and work peers—and the support they provide—are critical to successful transfer after the training is completed, it is also possible to use the trainer(s) and training peers after training as well. The trainer can set up site visits with trainees after completion of the program to review how the application plan and self-management techniques taught are working out in practice. Training peers can provide a support network of contacts to bounce ideas or difficult challenges off of as trainees work to implement their learning from training. The author was involved in several outdoor leadership development programs over the years in which, on the last day of the training, trainees established their own internal support network and agreed to an annual reunion. Trainees agreed to gather at least once a year to discuss how their learning had been useful to them back on the job. They used this informal support network to offer ideas and assistance throughout the year whenever they faced a difficult challenge that related to course concepts or transfer of learning.
Technological Support
Transfer may also be enhanced by various means of technological support after the training has been completed. An example of technological support is a relatively new development known as an Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS). An EPSS consists of computer access that provides expert advice when an employee faces a problem and also feeds information to the training department about the kinds of challenges employees have difficulty dealing with. Cagle’s, an Atlanta poultry processor, has developed an EPSS for employees who operate and maintain the chicken processing equipment. Technicians are trained on the basics of running the machines, but because the equipment is constantly being refined and improved, it is very difficult for employees to stay completely current on the latest technology. So, part of the basic training involves learning how to access the EPSS whenever questions arise or the machines break down. Through appropriate verbal commands, a computer with access to the EPSS is able to provide detailed instructions on how to fix equipment problems, where to find needed parts, how to swap out parts, and who to call if the technicians themselves are not able to fix the problem. The EPSS supplements the training that technicians have received by helping them diagnose and fix the processing equipment as quickly as possible, which is important in a plant that processes over 100,000 chickens a day.1
Relapse Prevention Training
Effective transfer of training must meet two conditions. First, trainees can take what they’ve learned in training and apply it to the same or similar situations they face on the job. Second, trainees can maintain these new learned behaviors over time. In regards to the latter, it has frequently been noted that a problem with training is that trainees return to the work place with a set of new skills and the motivation to try them out, but over time the enthusiasm wanes and the new skills are lost due to lack of practice and use. In such cases, trainees slip back into the comfort zone of old methods and approaches. One approach to dealing with this problem is known as relapse prevention training. Modeled after the approaches used in the rehabilitation of those with drug and alcohol addictions, relapse prevention training focuses on the identification of situations where trainees are likely to revert to old ingrained patterns of behavior and the development of strategies to counteract this tendency.2
Relapse prevention begins by educating trainees about the likelihood of encountering a relapse problem. Certain high-risk situations are identified where trainee behavior is likely to revert to old approaches, such as situations where job time pressures are very high immediately upon returning from the training. Relapse prevention attempts to provide trainees with the skills needed to overcome these potential problems. So, for example, if time pressures are likely to curtail opportunities to practice newly learned behaviors on the job, a section on time management may be included in the training program. According to the model, the trainee who effectively uses such learned relapse prevention measures achieves an enhanced sense of task mastery and self-confidence (self-efficacy) which in turn decreases the probability of relapse in the future.
9.6Conclusion
Summary guidelines from learning theory and research for enhancing transfer include the following:1
Clarify the big picture
Offer trainees an overview of the training content and process prior to the actual training.
Match up training and application environments
Maximize the similarities between the training environment and the ultimate application environment to which the learning must transfer. For example, training managers to be better interviewers should include role plays with “applicants” who behave the same way that real applicants might.
Practice, practice, practice
Provide for adequate practice, and in the case of a skill that must be applied under pressure, provide enough practice for overlearning to occur.
Vary the training conditions
Provide for a variety of stimulus situations so that trainees will generalize their knowledge to a wide variety of application environments.
Clarify priorities
Label or otherwise identify important features of the task to enable the trainee to distinguish the most significant items to be learned and transferred.
Return to the big picture at the end of training
Make sure that, in addition to the details to be learned in any training, trainees are also aware of the broader general principles that underlie the details.
In general, the more similar the goals, behaviors, and environment of the training program are to the work setting, the greater the likelihood that the learning will transfer back to the job. Obviously, transfer is achieved most readily if the conditions under which the training occurs are identical to those at the work site, which explains the continuing popularity of on-the-job training (OJT). Transfer is also facilitated by training for understanding of principles; after training, these principles can be applied in a variety of work situations. Further, transfer is aided if what is learned in training is reinforced on the job. For example, trainees who have been taught how to be more assertive and offer suggestions on how to do their jobs better may find it difficult to transfer these skills back at work if they report to bosses who insist on dictating procedures themselves and who are not open to the ideas of subordinates. In such cases, the training has probably been misdirected, and should have started first with the supervisors who are unsupportive.
At this point in the text, we have completed the first four steps in the ADDIE model. We have discussed needs analysis, and in this topic we have pointed out how transfer of learning can be facilitated by thoughtful conduct of this needs analysis. That is, needs analysis can serve a dual purpose: it both identifies training needs and also motivates interest in the learning to come from the program among potential participants and others around them. We have discussed training program design, development, and implementation, and in this topic we have noted how important many design choices are in first maximizing learning and then facilitating transfer of that learning back to the job. The manner in which training is implemented—particularly the extent to which it is based on adult learning theory—helps explain why some learning is retained and eventually implemented, and other learning is not. We now turn our attention to the final step in the ADDIE model, which is evaluation. As we will see, some evaluation is internal to the training, such as trainee reaction and learning. But, the most important part of evaluation is external: how much of the learning from training is actually implemented back on the job? That is, how effective is the transfer?
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