THE SECTIONS OF THE THESIS
Introduction
There is not one particular structure/set of sections that suits every thesis. The uniqueness of each thesis is reflected in its disposition. Below, you will find a set of suggested headings which refer to issues that in most cases should be treated in the thesis, whether in a separate sub-section or not. The issues marked *, should be treated, usually under separate headings.
*Summary; Abstract
*Table of contents Introduction; Background (etc.)
*Problem
*Purpose Perspective Delimitation Definitions
Methodology; (etc.) (not discussed here)
*Frame of reference; method, theory and previous research (etc.) Research questions
*Method (not discussed here) Results
*Analysis, Interpretation (etc.) Conclusions
Discussion, Implications, Recommendations, (etc.), Critique of method
*List of references Appendices
Abstract
The thesis must start with an abstract (summary) of ½ page. The summary should give a clear image of the problem and topic, method and main results. The Abstract precedes the Table of Contents and has an unnumbered heading.
Table of Contents
A Table of Contents must be included. All numbered section headings and sub-section headings should appear with the associated page number. Following the Table of Contents, separate lists of tables and figures, with their associated headings, numbers and page number, may also be included.
Introduction; Background (etc.)
If there is a separate section with this type of heading, it should be used to introduce the reader to the broader context of the researched problem. Via a ”funnel approach”, the authors take the reader from this broader context to the narrower issue in the problem statement.
Problem/Problem discussion
The problem statement may be the last part of the Introduction, or it may be included under a separate heading. If the text preceding the problem statement comprises of less than one page, “The Problem” can be used as headline for the entire introduction.
“Problem” in this context does not carry the negative connotations it does in everyday language. The “problem” treated may well be an “opportunity”. The problem statement should make clear what the subject matter of the thesis is, and why this topic deserves to be studied. A clear statement of the problem is an important ingredient in successful thesis writing. If the authors themselves are not very clear about the problem, no other strengths of the thesis will make up for that deficiency. The problem statement should guide everything that follows after it. Therefore, the authors should make a serious effort to achieve a clear problem statement early on in the process, discuss it with the tutor and time and again go back to the problem statement (and purpose, cf. below) when other critical decisions are to be made.
The above does not exclude that the problem statement could be revised during the process. On the contrary, this is very likely! The authors may learn new things on the way that provide a rational for doing so. If the problem statement is changed, it is imperative, however, that the final draft of other parts is guided by this new formulation and not coloured by the early detours.
Purpose
Fulfilling the purpose is what thesis writing is all about. The purpose should logically follow from the problem statement. It should be stated clearly and concisely. The purpose denotes what specific aspects of the problem that the authors aim at treating in their investigation.
There are different kinds of purposes. A descriptive purpose aims at a description of (some part of) reality. An evaluative (normative) purpose aims at telling how something ought to be, e.g., to give recommendations for some party’s decisions and actions. An explanatory purpose goes further than a descriptive one in terms of an ambition not only to tell how something is, but also why. Finally, the purpose may aim at theory development. The aim is then to develop theory for a phenomenon or class of problems for which no satisfactory theory exists, or to adapt existing theory in order to make it more relevant for some specific purpose. An example would be to elaborate on a more general theory in order to make it more suitable for understanding a particular type of firm, e.g., small firms, retailing firms or knowledge-based firms.
In practice, there are often combinations of different types of purposes. For instance, the step from the explanation of a phenomenon to the development of theory on this phenomenon is not far; an original and enlightening description can introduce further theory building etc. Generally, a bachelor thesis should strive towards making a theoretical contribution. This does not exclude that the authors generate other valuable knowledge as well, e.g. normative advice or a good description of a particular company. They should not hesitate to point this out. However, they should decide from case to case, and in dialogue with their tutor, if it is wise to include such issues in the purpose. A purpose addressing too many side issues easily diverts the readers’ attention from what the authors mainly aim to do.
Authors should avoid vague purposes such as “The purpose of this thesis is to increase our knowledge about…”. The purpose should be more precise than that. AND, please avoid methodological statements in the purpose (ie., how the authors will go about the issue studied).
One way of reaching more clarity is to include Research Questions (RQs). RQs can both follow on the purpose or can be introduced in the following, perhaps as a result of the theoretical review. However, RQs have to be related to the purpose and this relationship has to highly obvious or explicitly explained!!
Perspective
This heading refers to whether the problem is studied from a producer or a consumer perspective; from society’s, the management’s or the employees’ point of view, etc. Only as an exception is “perspective” a separate sub-section. Often the perspective taken is evident already in the problem or purpose statements. It is always important, however, that the authors themselves are clear about the perspective – otherwise the thesis may appear as a random walk. It is, therefore, useful to write down a “perspective statement” for internal use.
Delimitation
A delimitation sets the limits for what the authors claim to be able to say something about. A good strategy is to choose a relevant title for the thesis, and to use clear formulations of problem and purpose. By telling the reader what they intend to do, the authors also tell us what they do not claim to do (if you give it some thought, you will very soon find that a list of what you don’t do in the thesis is very easy to expand). That is why a separate delimitation section is generally not a must. Sometimes, however, there is reason to separately point out some consideration which the reader cannot be assumed to understand the consequences of all by him/herself. If this can be suspected, clearly stating such delimitation makes the work more valuable to the reader.
Definitions
The reader can be assumed to have a grasp of theory and method equalling what the authors had before starting the thesis work. Concepts etc. which can be assumed to be familiar therefore do not have to be defined. Conversely, it is important that concepts that cannot be assumed to be familiar be carefully explained – otherwise the reader may lose interest or become frustrated. Concepts central to the thesis may need explicit definitions. This may concern concepts that are used in a more precise way than in everyday language, or concepts that are given differential definitions by other authors. Explicit definitions can be given sequentially as the concepts occur in the text, or be gathered together in a separate sub-section. This concerns theoretical definitions. Operational definitions, i.e. how some concept has been measured in the empirical study, are given in the method chapter.
Concepts that are in need of definition are often central in the thesis. It is therefore very important that you are consistent in your usage of these concepts throughout the thesis.
A stupid example. You start out your thesis by introducing the concept of value and define it in monetary terms. However, in the analysis you use values implying beliefs and attitudes held by individuals. This slide in the meaning of the concept value will most likely confuse the reader…!
Frame of Reference
The authors should study theories and previous studies and create from that their own frame of reference for the empirical study. The frame of reference guides both design and analysis of the empirical study. It is generally not a good idea to make “Theory” and “Previous Research” separate sections. Often, theory is a result of previous empirical research; in other cases, the relevant previous research also uses (in part) the same theories the authors want to refer to. If so, it is advisable to integrate these issues. In other cases, the authors want to apply theories previously not used in the same context, while previous empirical studies based on other (or no) theories also exist. Then it is more natural to treat theory and previous research as separate issues before the authors make their own integration. Besides theory and previous research, the frame of reference may also include industry-, firm- or region-specific information if such information is not satisfactorily covered in the Introduction already.
Examiners put great emphasis on the students’ ability to use theory as a tool for creating and
communicating knowledge. Theory can be used fruitfully in at least three different ways:
The thesis aims at theory testing. In such cases, the theory is more or less the ”subject matter” of the thesis, and the choice of theory determines to a great extent the design of the study and what the conclusions should concern. This is often said to be a theory driven thesis.
Also in other cases than pure theory testing, theory may be used for the design of the investigation.
Theory can be used for interpretation (sense making) of empirical observations (data).
The theory that is used for testing or design (1,2) should of course also be used for interpretation (3). Sometimes, however, data are not easily made sense of from the theoretical perspective originally chosen. Other theories may then be introduced in the analysis. This is perfectly acceptable, as long as the nature of the process is disclosed to the reader. The authors should not give the impression that the design of the study was guided by a theory, the low usefulness of which was not realised until after the data were analysed and therefore other theories were introduced!
Theory is not the opposite of reality, and not the opposite of practice. All of our goal-directed behaviour is governed by some kind of theory about the workings of the world. If I walk to a dealer in order to buy a magazine, I do what I do because I have an experienced-based “lay theory” which says that if I walk this and that street and make turns at specific corners, I will eventually get to the dealer, and from him I may buy the magazine I was after. But this is not a fact until I really went there, paid and received my paper. In principle, delivery could have been late, or it might have been a public holiday which I had forgotten, the dealer might have stopped trading, etc. Nevertheless, the theory is much more useful than random behaviour if I really want a paper. And if no form of theory should guide action, random behaviour is the only alternative (unless we accept “nothing in the world is predictable” as a theory – then there is no alternative).
Like lay theories, scientific theories are useful tools that can be used for reaching goals. Like lay theories, scientific theories are based upon experience. The difference is that the experience that the scientific theory is built upon was systematically collected and/or analysed. A lot of
work by clever people has in most cases been invested in a scientific theory. The authors should therefore be respectful towards such theories, and not disregard them until they are certain they have a better alternative.
Something which should definitely be avoided is to base the design and interpretation on “common sense” (i.e., the author’s unconscious lay theory) and thereafter insert some textbook theory in order to “please the tutor”. Tutors tend not to be pleased by that approach.
Theories are simplifications of reality! When a theory applies perfectly with a specific case, it is no longer a theory but an idiosyncratic description of little use for understanding other cases. A useful theory must abstract and generalize, and thus neglect many of the fine details.
That is the general usefulness of the theory on how to find a dealer that provides magazines is improved if it on a more general level. On a detailed level the theory could be “Go out of the house, turn left on Kampavagen. Proceed to number 13 and turn left”. This is useful only if you live/stay in a certain house! On an abstract level the theory could be “Go out of the house. Look for major crossing, bus stop etc., a place where it is likely that a number of people regularly pass. In those places it is likely that a dealer will be found.” This theory probably applies to all cities in the world, so it is general but not so detailed.
This means that a theory in the form the students meet it in a book may not be the perfect tool for the chosen problem, but parts of it may still be a useful tool. The authors should therefore also be “disrespectful” towards theory, in the sense that they must be prepared to make adaptations, and to combine different theories. Using theory is not an excuse for not thinking for oneself!
It is required that the authors study previously published research within the problem area and that they organise and summarise the main themes of this research in the frame of reference. The value of the thesis and the credibility of its conclusions are leveraged when related to the results of previous studies.
The two main ways of reviewing literature are:
database and conventional library search, using relevant (combinations of) keywords. It is also possible to find references in various databases on the internet.
study of the references of the first studies you encounter.
When writing about previous research, the author should show some ability to judge the quality of the studies and give more weight to studies of high quality.
We require that you include a description of the method (and results) applied when reviewing literature. Ie answer the question; how did you construct your frame of reference? This method is preferable presented first in the frame of reference chapter in the thesis.
Methodology and method
First a word on methodology. At several universities in Sweden, it has become usual that the “Method” part of the thesis takes the form of a “miniature textbook on the philosophy of science”. The standard version is an on-the-surface discussion of “positivism contra hermeneutics”, often with little relevance to the thesis as a whole. Even worse, this has often
been carried out at the expense of a comprehensive description of – and rationales for – the empirical method(s) used in the thesis.
The authors of a bachelor thesis should have a good command of major schools of thought in the philosophy of science, and related matters. They should also know, however, that a) the concepts ”positivism” and ”hermeneutics” are certainly not a complete list of scientific ideologies, b) these concepts are filled with (partly) different content by different authors, c) that in research in practice, purely positivistic or purely hermeneutic approaches are rare indeed, and d) that this may be a good thing, as the endpoints of a scale of scientific ideologies may be about as attractive as the endpoints of a political right-left scale…
What we demand of the authors is methodological insight and reflection. That is, they should be able to discuss their chosen approach in these terms. The authors should also be able to give satisfactory answers to such questions during the defence.
Now more on method. If theory is one major tool in thesis work, method is the other. Method is the tool used for fulfilling the purpose by means of an empirical study in a scientifically satisfactory manner.
Showing an ability to choose appropriate methods, and an ability to use them in fruitful ways, is one of the most important competencies the authors should demonstrate to the reader. Choices of method are made at different levels. Firstly, the choice of methods implies that the authors take a stand in terms of basic philosophy of science issues (see above). This should be done consciously; the authors should be able to defend their conviction that meaningful knowledge about the problem in question can be gained with the chosen methods.
The method section in the thesis should comprise a straightforward description of how the empirical work has been carried out. It should not be a “miniature textbook on various methods”. Pros and cons of the chosen methods should be discussed with reference to the authors’ own empirical task. Strengths and weaknesses relevant with regard to the purpose shall of course be discussed. Most of the method part thus deals with the method the author has chosen. Other, alternative methods are referred to in order to build a rationale for the choices the author has made. Methods that are clearly unsuitable for the purpose do not have to be mentioned at all.
The authors should note that both methods of data collection and data analysis should be described and rationalised.
The description should be detailed enough to make it possible (in principle) for the reader to conduct a similar study. In order to avoid that the method section becomes too long, some of the illustrative materials may be put in appendices (questionnaire, interview guide, etc.).
Finally, a reminder! Do not forget to communicate the basics!! That is, how did you actually do it? Why did you choose to do as you did? What options were out ruled and why? What could have been done otherwise in hindsight (may be a part of final reflections in the thesis). AND, do not forget to be explicit about the analysis of data. What method did you use to analyse? (and why?)
And, as stated in 4.10 the thesis should include a method displaying how the authors conducted their literature review and constructed their frame of references. This method is preferably included in the frame of reference chapter in the thesis.
Results/Empirical findings
The empirical part of the report may – but does not have to – start with a relatively “pure” reporting of empirical results. This may take somewhat different form depending on what kind of approach and data collection method have been used. If the study is in the form of testing hypothesis developed from a theoretical review, “Results” would report some statistical tests that logically follow from the stated hypotheses. For descriptive purposes it would mean the reporting of descriptive data. In investigations with a more qualitative orientation, the closest equivalent would be narrative case descriptions or interview summaries. The common theme in the result part of the thesis is that the style should be concise and directed towards description, not deeper interpretation.
Please note that primary data refers to data collected in this study and based on the purpose of this study. Secondary data is valuable data collected in some other context, for some other purpose.
Analysis; Intepretation (or the like)
A high graded bachelor thesis should be characterised by a deep and creative analysis. Often, “Results” and “Analysis” are combined, i.e., comments, interpretations and reasoning accompany the results as they are presented. This may be followed up by a more overall kind of integrative analysis towards the end of the section.
In the analysis, the concepts and models introduced in the frame of reference should be used in order to throw light on the empirical observations the authors have made. Further, this should be done in a systematic manner, i.e. by application of the analysis method(s) chosen in the method section. Important building blocks of a high-quality analysis are a) links to established theory, and b) a systematic approach. The analysis should also be logically organised and stick to the issues of the purpose and research questions. ”Systematic” often refers to systematic comparison; between empirical groups or cases, between theory and empirical “facts”, between interpretations from the perspective of different theories, etc.
However, systematic approach and use of theory alone do not guarantee a really good analysis. Achieving that requires also the ability to see beyond what is evident (i.e., evident in the light of theory and with a systematic approach). Such ability is partly based on inherent talent, but to an even greater extent it is a matter of time and inspired effort. The authors have to think a lot about their results, penetrate the issues and perhaps not accept the first possible interpretation. What do the results really imply? How else can they be understood? If the authors devote a lot of time and real interest to approach the empirical material from several different angles, and if they have made sure there is enough time to let the thoughts grow in the back of their minds, they are likely to squeeze out much more of their investigation than if a prepared analysis plan were strictly followed and if the analysis were compressed in time.
Therefore: devote enough time for the analysis work! This is often where thesis authors fail to make their own work full justice.
Conclusions
It is often suitable to summarise the output from the analysis in terms of a number of conclusions. Conclusions should be related to the purpose of the thesis. If a number of research questions have been specified, it is often advisable that one conclusion mirrors each research question. The “Conclusions” section should be concise; perhaps not more than one page long. The uncertainty associated with the conclusions are only communicated by means of expressions like “…when weighing the evidence, it appears relatively more likely that…”, “…the most reasonable interpretation is…”, etc. More elaborate “academic hedging” belongs elsewhere, e.g., the Method, Analysis or Discussion sections.
Discussion
The Analysis and Conclusions sections should deal almost exclusively with the authors’ own empirical data in relation to purpose and research questions. Just like a “funnel approach” is used in the early part of the manuscript, a reversed funnel approach may be applied towards the end. That is, the authors may feel they have learned more during the process than can be communicated through the reporting and interpretation of empirical observations, and they may want to share this knowledge, too. It is perfectly acceptable to do so. In fact, it may substantially increase the value of the thesis. In order to separate the more systematic and empirically based from more speculative thoughts, it is good to reserve the latter kind of “findings” for a separate ”Discussion” section.
The discussion may also concern implications from the results for different types of economic agents who have some interest in the studied problem (firms, policy-makers, unions, consumers). Alternatively, they may concern how future studies should be carried out in order to reach further, or thoughts concerning the applicability of the conclusions for other countries, industries, etc. As mentioned above, the authors should show awareness of methodological questions and of strengths and weaknesses of their own investigation. It may be useful to return to such issues towards the end of the manuscript, after the analysis. In a critique of one’s own investigation, it is important both to admit weaknesses and to call attention to strong points.
References
All works that are quoted or cited in the text should be collected in a list of references. All references should be in one alphabetically ordered list. That is, no separate lists for books, journals, etc., should be compiled. You are recommended to use the APA (Harvard) style for referencing.
Appendices
Information that is not central but nevertheless valuable to the reader may be given in appendices. This might concern background information (about the region, the industry, the firm), or details about method (interview guide, questionnaire, analysis of non-response), additional descriptive results that do not directly answer research questions). Be aware that you cannot assume that the reader will pay attention to the information provided in the appendices.
Hence, this must be thought of as “extras” and the reader must be provided with a complete story in the main text.
Important Issues
Ethical issues
When authors collect data from individuals or firms, it is essential that they make clear that the finished thesis will be public. In surveys, the respondents are normally guaranteed confidentiality in an introductory letter. It is the authors’ responsibility to fulfil any promises given. If an informant of any kind, during or immediately after e.g. an interview, expresses the wish that the information be presented anonymously, the authors have the responsibility to respect that wish. If authors wish to work with data that cannot be made public, they should immediately consult their tutor.
Firms are often willing to share with thesis authors such information that they would normally not want to share with their competitors or with the public. Unfortunately, there are the rare cases when thesis authors have abused this fact for personal gain. This should be strictly avoided. Conversely, a firm or organisation that financially supports the thesis work may try to abuse the authors’ ability to obtain information from competitors. The authors should refrain from being used in such a way and consult the tutor if in doubt.
The thesis authors have copyright according to Swedish copyright law. The fact that the thesis is used for obtaining academic credits, however, imposes certain restrictions in their exclusive right to the manuscript.
Financing
The main rule is that the student themselves are responsible for financing the thesis work, including costs for data collection and printing. If external sources of finance are opted for, it may be a good idea to approach local, regional or national authorities, or organisations such as unions, The Chamber of Commerce, The Swedish Employers’ Confederation and suchlike, rather than individual firms. This is because a bachelor thesis should treat a problem of general interest rather than solving a specific party’s problem.
If the authors wish to write a thesis on a problem that falls within the domain of a current research program at JIBS, the school itself may be willing to cover direct costs. Such decisions are taken by the person responsible for the research programme in question.
Additional information
The key information are posted on Canvas. There, you can find slides and other material that can be of use.
TIME PLANNING – SOME FINAL WORDS
It will take time to write a good thesis. It will take time to get the books and articles you need to study. It will take time to read them. It will take time to synthesise what you have read, so that you can turn it into a workable frame of reference. It will take time to translate your research questions into a good interview guide or survey. It will take time to get access to your interviewees or get your surveys back. It will take time to write tens of pages and later revise these pages.
And above all, It will take time to perform a good analysis/interpretation. This cannot be emphasised enough. Too often authors run out of time at the end of their writing process. Unfortunately, it is then the analysis/interpretation part of the thesis that will be flawed. That is, even though the authors have put in a great effort, the thesis will not be as good as it should have been.
To avoid this, you have to work with time planning and use the alotted time efficiently. Here follows some practical tips:
Start working with your thesis ideas well before the first supervision seminar so that you can present a well-defined research topic in this seminar.
Decide on a deadline by which all empirical material needs to be collected. You should allow plenty of time for analysis/interpretation and writing-up till the final seminar.
When you have a fairly good picture of problem and method, search for literature, order this literature and read!
Specifiy all stages of your writing process and how they relate to each other from a time perspective.
Use time gaps wisely. Do not wait for time dependent stages to complete, rather, use these time gaps to deal with matters not that pressing.
If you are not sure what should be included in a chapter and how to formulate this, it is advisable to write a general outline rather than a full-text chapter; full-text revisions are time-consuming.
Think through carefully on how to carry out the analysis/interpretation before you launch the empirical investigation.
Try to be ahead of schedule rather than behind when it comes to the seminars.
Make use of the functions in your word processor when it comes to headings/subheadings,references, table of contents, etc.
Write the reference list in the course of your thesis writing.
GOOD LUCK!
The post THE SECTIONS OF THE THESIS Introduction There is not one particular structure/set appeared first on PapersSpot.
